In developed countries, people typically have the opportunity to choose from
different travel mode options. The contributing factors that lead to a certain choice
of mode alternative have been intensively studied in various countries. Mainly
based on traveler surveys, researchers have distinguished macroscopic and micro-
scopic influences. Macroscopic factors describe the overall setting where the mode
choice is made and cover superordinate socio-economic and structural aspects. Mi-
croscopic influences relate to the traveler as an individual and the specifications
of the planned travel. Factors such as age, income level or cost of mobility are
covered as part of this subgroup [73] [74]. Figure 9 summarizes relevant influ-
ence factors in accordance with three new categories. It is distinguished between
factors that are based on the characteristics of the decision maker and attributes
of the specific trip made. Also, determinants related to the parking situation at
the trip destination and factors considering travel mode alternatives, in particular
public transport, have been emphasized in the literature. The provided collection
of factors represents the intersecting set of findings derived from various studies
in different countries. The annotated arrows indicate correlations between the
Figure 9. Relevant influence factors on the preference of car-related travel
Ding and Zhang 2016 [74] assumed that each individual chooses the preferred
travel mode based on a maximization of perceived utility. As travel mode alterna-
tives, respondents were asked to pick either public transport or car usage. Cluster-
ing algorithms were applied to form groups of respondents with similar individual
characteristics. Gender, occupation, income and car ownership were considered
as decisive factors. Ultimately, a set of generalized findings was derived from the
obtained data using a multinomial logistic regression model. It was found that in-
dividuals with higher income tend to choose cars over public transport mainly for
reasons of comfort. Respectively, travelers with comparably low income preferred
to choose means of public transit. Moreover, even though long traveling times are
perceived negatively, car travel was found to be generally more accepted.
Weis et al. 2011 [75] conducted a travel mode survey in Switzerland, indicating
a significant effect of parking area characteristics on the travel mode. As a decision
variable, the perceived utility of parking areas was used. It was found that males
with higher income showed less consideration of fuel prices and costs of parking.
However, in general, costs of parking were found to be a highly relevant factor. Car
accessibility had a positive effect on car usage in general while the necessary time
for finding an available parking spot was perceived highly negative. In particular
for short travels, the time spent searching and the monetary costs of parking
were found to be important. Moreover, owners of public transport passes show
a general preference for avoiding car usage while the particular travel is relevant
for the decision making process. If many changes of public transport means are
necessary or if significant waiting time is involved, this decreases the perceived
mode utility. Finally, the authors point out that car usage is typically connected
to time savings compared to alternative travel modes. The required duration of
mode-specific travel, in fact, is another relevant decision factor.
Braun Kohlova 2016 [76] conducted travel studies for several cities in the
Czech Republic. Focusing on travel mode utilities, tendencies towards car usage
for males with high personal income and a superior work position were identified.
Also, variables describing psychometric preferences towards certain lifestyles were
found to be influential. The study included questions regarding the importance of
travel accessibility and indicated preferences for short distances in a city lifestyle.
Clark, Chatterjee and Melia 2016 [77] find ecological awareness to be an important
influence factor that reduces the likelihood of car usage. Moreover, commuting dis-
tance, the residential context and the availability of vehicles within the household
were identified to be relevant.
Badland et al. 2010 [78] examined work-related travel behavior in New
Zealand and found trip convenience and travel mode accessibility to be crucial
influences. Moreover, the availability and cost of free car parking, traffic intensity
were identified to have significant influence on the mode choice.
Furthermore, several studies have considered individuals’ age when making
travel mode choices. In most cases, it is implied that car usage is highly important
for elderly in different countries [73] [79] [80] [77]. Böcker, Van Amen and Helbich
2016 [81] find elderly to rely on other modes of transport for the use case of the
Rotterdam city area. The study compares a reference group to the behavior of
the elderly. It is found that the spatial context of the planned travel also has an
important effect. If the trip is set within a very dense urban environment, cars are
less likelier to be chosen. The preference for car travel also positively correlates
with the household size and the number of vehicles available. Moreover, it was
found that individuals who showed certain preferences in the past are likely to
continue making similar choices in the future [80].
Adverse weather conditions also have an empirically-proven effect on traffic
patterns. Drivers tend to cancel or postpone trips, change routes, run errands
preferably nearby and choose public transport instead of car travel if road con-
gestion is present [82]. Rainfall is found to decrease car traveling speeds and the
overall traffic volume. The corresponding effects for snow are similar but intensi-
fied [83] [84]. Winds and low temperatures are found to increase car and public
transport travel [85]. Besides, Cools, Moons and Wets 2010 [86] highlight that the
influence of certain factor combinations varies among different locations. This is ex-
plained by varying travel motives, for example those related to roads used mainly
for leisure or alternatively commuting. While leisure is a rather flexible travel
context where weather is an important influence, work-related travel is rather in-
flexible [85]. With specific regards to parking, low temperatures and rainfall were
identified to increase the likelihood of drivers to choose off-street parking instead
significant influence [87].
Yue, Cheng, Tai 2009 modeled the choice of travel modes related to urban
events in accordance with a combination of socio-demographic and travel-specific
attributes. The event popularity and resulting traffic demand were assumed to be
known based on historical experience of the organizers [88]. This assumption is
reasonable for recurrent events in established settings where a sufficient amount of
data is available. The popularity of one-time events and non-commercial meetings
is much harder to estimate. In fact, the study results are limited to events with
required registration or ticket purchase.
Papacharalampous et al. 2015 [89] studied the modal split for big events in
the city of Amsterdam. Pedestrian flows during an exemplary set of events were
analyzed to calculate the share of visitors traveling with different travel modes. It
was found that 74% of the visitors arrived by car with a person-per-car ratio of
about 3.5. This extraordinary importance of automobile travel is interpreted as
a result of the events’ attractiveness to long-distance travelers and the convenient
accessibility of the venue by car. Attendees have certain expectations regarding the
expected parking search time at the destination and this factor does have an impact
on the observed parking demand. As another factor, long-distance public transport
in the case study offered comparably high group fares and limited traveling options
after the considered events finished. This is interpreted as a secondary reason for
the high car usage ratio.
No research focusing on smaller events, especially populated with social media
data, has been conducted. Moreover, no findings are available that try to quantify
the relevancy of interesting place characteristics for travel mode choices. As de-
scribed above, the most present geographic level of detail being applied in current