Need for Interactive Worked Examples 44

It has been shown that worked examples are an effective means of supporting the cognitive apprenticeship necessary for developing expertise in the computing science problem domains identified. Furthermore, guidelines for developing effective worked examples resulting from a wide range of research studies have been noted.

However, outstanding observations, drawn primarily from the literature on Mastery learning[54], are that:

a. Large numbers of worked examples are required to ensure that all

learners can develop the necessary schemata for expert problem-solving. b. The worked examples should cover a broad range of experience levels, so

own level and moving through the worked examples at an appropriate rate.

The major issue in this dissertation concerns how these two points can be addressed.

The use of computer-based learning environments is proposed as a means of doing so. Appropriately designed computer-based learning environments support instructional designs required in cognitive apprenticeship, such as modelling, coaching, and scaffolding (fading systems). In such computer-based learning environments, modelling the expert’s handling of complex tasks can be achieved through experts describing their own cognitive process; the coaching can be delivered through an expert’s explanations; the scaffolding can be removed as the students’ learning stages upgrade. Designing this kind of learning

environment could help students to observe how experts apply their schemata or skills to solving problems. The process of progressively removing the scaffolding (by providing less complete explanations) encourages novices to develop their self-explanation skills. Thus while progressing from fully worked out to faded worked examples, the novice is moving from passive to active learning modes.

The limitations of worked examples from textbooks were discussed in section 2.4.1.2. They can be summarized as no interactivity for students, non-

customizable by individual teachers, not enough detailed explanations for students’ reviewing, and may not be suitable for student individual learning.

Furthermore, as Hundhausen et al. [55] reported, simple visualization is not enough to support successful learning of dynamic algorithmic processes. Students might only look at dynamic visualizations without understanding the context or deeper meaning. Based on his meta-analysis, he suggested that students learned better when they were engaged with a tool in some kinds of activities, such as responding to questions, making predictions or doing some experiments.

By using a computer-based learning environment, several of the above limitations can be addressed. For example:

 Interactivity is added in, as viewing is under learner control, it actively involves the student in working with the material. Students can work through the material in their own pace and can move backwards and forwards as required.

 Fully worked-out procedures can be demonstrated rather than providing only a few snapshots of the transformation. All the detailed

transformational steps can be shown, as space/time is not limited.

 Full explanation of each step also can also be given, for the same reason.  Review can be carried out at any time, as the whole procedure of

developing solutions is available, unlike examples presented in lectures or tutorial.

 Faded worked examples can be well-supported, so students can actively engage rather than passively receive. Gradually fading worked-out steps of the solution can be adapted more easily by computer than on paper. Anticipating the next solution step and then confirming the prediction can also be achieved through embedded questions.

The use of computer-based interactive worked examples is proposed as a means of bridging the gap, as students are actively involved in working with the

material. If suitably constructed, explanations can be provided between steps which make the “dialogue” between students and the interactive worked examples become possible.

A successful example of such interactive worked examples is Animated Database Courseware (ADbC) [56], a screenshot from which is shown in Figure 2.4. ADbC is an online database teaching tool produced by Kennesaw State University, funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). It consists of a set of interactive software modules, designed to aid students to learn the fundamentals of database concepts. It uses hundreds of animations as worked examples to demonstrate the concepts in database systems. The interactive worked examples are not only used in the classroom to provide additional means for demonstrating concepts, but also are used for in-class and out-of-class

assignments. Murray and Guimaraes [35] evaluated the use of interactive worked examples in the teaching of database concepts using ADbC and proved that worked examples do support the teaching and learning process. They got very positive evaluation results based on students’ feedback and suggested that

providing students with access to interactive worked examples increases student motivation, helps students develop deeper understanding and achieve higher levels of learning. This demonstrates that worked-examples in an interactive environment are potentially beneficial for learning.

Figure 2.4 ADbC Online Teaching Tool [56]

ADbC shows an expert’s problem-solving model for the learner to study and emulate, therefore novices can use it as guidance to solve problems. However, while ADbC does provide some hints about the associations between entities, these hints do not explain the reasons for the expert’s decision-making judgements.