Nominal Prefixes: an overview

Nakkara has an array of nominal prefixes in addition to the verbal prefixes characteristic of the language type. The majority of nominal prefixes in Nakkara are inflectional. They reflect the person, number and gender oppositions of a standard pronominal paradigm (see Table 4.2.). These and other types of inflectional material, such as pronominal suffixes, occur as outermost elements of a nominal. Derivational affixes are inner elements and are always morphological isolates, not members of a paradigm. A derivational affix occurs immediately adjacent to a root-form but additional inflectional material can occur peripherally.

Pronominal noun prefixes in Nakkara are different in this respect from those of surrounding languages. In Gunwinygu, Maung, Gunbarlang, Garragoni and Burarra for example, there are sets containing four or more noun-class prefixes. These classify nouns (and adjectives) according to a range of semantic distinctions, including categories of gender and sometimes number, but not usually oppositions of person. The noun class

prefixes of these languages are therefore not fully pronominal like in Nakkara. Nevertheless, there are restrictions on use of the full pronominal set of prefixes in Nakkara, specifically where the referent or nominal base is non-human. In such examples non- Minimal number is rarely coded and only third person prefixes are possible.

Pronominal prefixes in Nakkara occur not only with nouns but also with adjectives, demonstratives, personal pronouns, indefinite-interrogative pronouns and derived nouns. A nominal prefix typically reflects the pronominal properties of a head element. The

specific kind of information expressed by nominal prefixes in Nakkara will depend on (i) which of the three prefix paradigms is represented, and (ii) the type of base-form occurring with the prefix.

In addition to the three prefix paradigms discussed here in 4.5 to 4.5.3 there is also a pronominal suffix paradigm (see 4.6.1.), a derivational prefix (see 4.7.1.) and limited non- pronominal case-marking such as an Ablative suffix (see 4.7.3.), a Locative/Instrumental post-position (see 4.7.4.) and a Proximal suffix (see 4.7.5.).

4.5. Nominal Prefix Form s

There are three pronominal prefix paradigms in Nakkara and they have been labelled according to their function. They are the Attributive prefix, the Characteristic prefix and the Locational prefix. All three involve a notion of "possession" to a greater or lesser degree; sometimes inalienable (as a body part), sometimes alienable (as a quality, an ability or a material possession). Most prefix plus nominal base constructions can occur without overt mention of the head or subject element and the formation often has an optional predicative reading (see examples (1) and (2) below).

"Attributive" is a rather general term for this prefix type, but it is necessary because of the disparate range of associated functions (see 4.5.1.1 to 4.5.1.6.). The other prefix sets function more specifically. A Characteristic prefix occurs with derived nominals only; it usually indicates that the person or thing coded by the prefix is characterised by the quality, ability, etc. denoted in the base. A Locational prefix occurs mostly with body-part nominals. It indicates possession of that body-part and simultaneously specifies it as the location of the end-point of an action.

The paradigms differ formally from each other only in the third person Minimal forms. Because of this the three paradigms can easily collapse into one, with the three options listed under the 3 Minimal forms, as in Table 4.5. below.

The third person Minimal prefix forms are the only distinctly nominal forms in the paradigms. The non-Minimal non-third person forms and also the first person Minimal prefix are identical to intransitive verb prefixes (affirmative, non-future). The remaining forms have a first order prefix component lka-1 or lnga-1. These forms are the same as the corresponding intransitive verb prefixes coding irrealis2 negative verb forms (see 5.4.3.1.). In the Unit-Augmented feminine forms, the final lal of the prefix is dropped following application rule M-l (see 2.6.3.1.) The final lal of the Unit-Augmented non­ feminine forms is dropped in Characteristic forms only, because of the derivational prefix following (see rule M-16a, 2.6.3.3. and also discussion in 4.5.3. to 4.5.3.2.).

MINIMAL UNIT-AUGMENTED AUGMENTED

1 nga- 1 ngin(a)- 1 ngirrba-

2 nganja- If ngirr(a)- 2 nun(a)- 2 nurrba- 1/2 karr(a)- 2f nurr(a)- 1/2 ngun(a)- 1/2 ngurrba- 3 (AP) n- (LP) na- (CP) wu- 3f (AP) kin- (LP) yandji- (CP) kinki- l/2f ngurr(a)- 3 kaban(a)- 3f kabarr(a)- 3 karrba-

TABLE 4.5. Combined Nominal Prefix Paradigm

(where AP = Attributive Prefix, LP = Locational Prefix and CP = Characteristic Prefix)

4.5.1. The Attributive Prefix

Attributive prefix forms occur more commonly than other nominal prefixes principally because they have a more extensive range of functions and can occur with more nominal base types.

One of the syntactic functions of this prefix is that it can give predicate status to nominal forms by reflecting the overt or inherent morphosyntactic properties (person, number, gender) of the head or subject noun. The Attributive prefix occurs with several types of nominal base including, common nouns, certain body part nouns, kin terms, adjectives, demonstratives, indefinite-interrogative pronouns and Cardinal pronouns.

In sections 4.5.1.1. to 4.5.1.6. each base type is discussed and examples of the inflected nominal form are given. The precise function of the prefix in these nominal formations varies according to the nominal base type.

4.5.1.1. Attributive Prefix with Adjective Base

The majority of adjectives in Nakkara take obligatory pronominal inflection. Of all such adjectives, most occur with the Attributive prefix. Prefix inflection can only be omitted when the base occurs with the derivational affix l-miyal, which then creates an inchoative verb stem (see 5.5.5.). Nevertheless, young speakers of Nakkara often omit the third person Minimal prefix /«+/.

The Attributive prefix reflects the person, number and gender of the head element or subject, i.e. the entity to whom or to which the quality or property denoted by the base is attributable. The prefix plus adjective base construction can have a predicative reading as well as a phrasal reading, with or without the support of related NPs, as the examples following show.

(1) kinberdakarda - i) long/tall one (fern) ii) it!she is long!tall

kin +berdakarda

3Mf +long/tall ATRB

(2) makkarranbulkka ndiirra - i) the la dangerous King Brown ii) the King Brown is dangerous.

makkarranbulkka n +djirra

King Brown 3M +dangerous ATRB

The absence of a verb-complex in these predications codes only an unmarked (for tense) existential statement about the noun referent. If a non-continuous existential predication is

required, an existential verb construction, with its obligatory tense marking, is added as in examples (3), (4) and (5).

(3) kinberdakarda kininja - she'll be tall

kin +berdakarda ki +ni - nja

3Mf +long, tall 3Mf +be - FUT

ATRB (S)

(4) nganiakkalakkuna nianina - (when) you were small/young

nganja +kkalakkuna nja +ni -na

2M + small, young 2M +be -PC/T

ATRB (S)

(5) ngirrbamimda ngirrbaninja - we'll all be honest

ngirrba +mirnda ngirrbi +ni -nja

1AUG +honest 1AUG +be -FUT

ATRB (S)IRR

There are no clear semantic guidelines for gauging which adjective bases take the Attributive prefix; nor are there common phonological features. Although most adjectives take either an Attributive or a Characteristic inflection (see 3.3.2. and 4.5.3.2.), some adjectives occur with no inflection at all. The only nominal forms that never occur with the Attributive prefix are derived nouns formed with the prefix lna+/. There are two exceptions to this generalisation, nawara 'female' and nakaddjara 'male', discussed below in 4.5.1.5. Adjectives which take an Attributive prefix fit into all f ive, of the adjective sub-classes in Nakkara (see 3.3.2.), but each sub-class has some adjective forms which do not take this prefix. An exception here is the Age sub-set which has only three members as adjectives. The majority of age nominals are Human Status nouns rather than adjectives (see 4.5.1.5.). The adjective sub-classes are (after Dixon 1977 .31): 'Physical Property', 'Human Propensity', 'Dimension', 'Value', 'Age' and 'Colour'.

Examples (6) to (8) below give some idea of the use of inflected adjectives in context The Attributive prefix occurs obligatorily with an Attributive-adjective base. When person number and gender of the head noun are overt, inflection is retained on the adjective form,

resulting often in inflectional concord, as in example (7). Where inflectional properties of a head noun are inherent, the inflected adjective reveals these properties, as in example (6). (6) Kanabba Bila, namurakka kinkorrawa .

kana +bba Bila namurakka kin +korrawa

that-there +DER (place) goose(fem) 3Mf +many

(3) ATRB

There are many geese there at Bila.

(7) Nganawa nkinabba nmuddia * nkara n k o ra , ndiakaraka.

ngana +wa n +kinabba n +muddja ,

1M(0) +give 3M +that-there 3M +heavy IMPV ATRB (near you) ATRB

n +kara n +kora, n +djakaraka

3M +this- 3M +useless 3M -»-light (weight)

ATRBhere ATRB ATRB

Give me that heavier one (rock, used as hammer), this one's no good, it's too light.

(8) Nkirra nganayengka ngaywaka nubberrawa nurrbakkerrawara.

nkirra nga -na +ye -ngka nga -y +waka - 0

earlier 1M -here +go -PC/T IM -IRR +speak -FUT

today (S) (S)

nubberrawa nurrba +kkerrawara

2AUG OBLQ 2AUG +new

ATRB

I've come here today to talk to you novices.