1. For greater detail on the Kurdish emirates and their relationship with the state, see David McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I. B. Tauris, 1996), 21–37. Martin van Bruinessen discusses the incorporation of the Kurdish areas into the Ottoman Empire in Agha, Shaikh and State (London: Zed Books, 1992). On the international politics of the region, see Kemal Kiris¸ci and Gareth M. Winrow, Ku¨rt Sorunu: Ko¨keni ve Gelisimi (The Kurdish question: Origins and
development) (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfi Yurt Yayinlari, 1997), 69–79. Kurdish authors argue that the Kurdish areas were divided up to hinder any attempts at their coa- lescing into a united front, and the sole expectation of them was that they remain loyal to the sultan; see Kendal, ‘‘The Kurds under the Ottoman Empire,’’ in A
York: Olive Branch Press, 1993), 14. It is also worth noting that Kurdish history is very much a hotly contested issue, not just between Turks and Kurds but also among Kurds themselves. Because the Kurds have not formed a state in the mod- ern era, it is difficult for them to have an accepted or official ‘‘Kurdish history’’ or national narrative; see Gu¨rdal Aksoy, ‘‘Ku¨rt Tarih Yazimi’nin Tarihi’’ (The history of the writing of Kurdish history), Demokrasi, June 18, 1996.
2. See Siyamend Othman, ‘‘Kurdish Nationalism: the Instigators and the His- torical Influences,’’ 5, unpublished paper based on chapter two of the author’s Ph.D. dissertation, Contribution historique a l’e´tude de Parti Demokrati Kurdistan-i
’Iraq. 1946–1970, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, 1985.
3. McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 41–42. 4. Kendal, ‘‘The Kurds under the Ottoman Empire,’’ 17.
5. David McDowall, ‘‘The Kurdish Question: A Historical Review,’’ in The
Kurds: A Contemporary Overview, ed. Philip Kreyenbroek and Stefan Sperl (Lon-
don: Routledge, 1992), 17.
6. On the Hamidiye regiments, see van Bruinessen, Agha, Shaykh and State; McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds; and Osman Aytar, Hamidiye Alaylarin-
dan Ko¨y Koruculuguna (From Hamidiye regiments to village guards) (Istanbul:
Medya Gu¨nesi Yayinlari, 1992).
7. Mete Tuncay, T. C. ’nde Tek-Parti Yo¨netmi’nin Kurulmasi (1923–1931) (The formation of the single-party system in the Turkish Republic) (Istanbul: Cem Yayi- nevi, 1992), 132n.
8. Othman, ‘‘Kurdish Nationalism,’’ 8. 9. McDowall, ‘‘The Kurdish Question,’’ 17.
10. Cumhur Keskin, ‘‘Tu¨rkiye’nin Ku¨rt Politikasi ve Resmi Ideoloji’’ (Turkey’s Kurdish policy and official ideology in Turkey’s Kurdish problem), in Tu¨rkiye’nin Ku¨rt Sorunu, ed. Seyfettin Gu¨rsel et al. (Istanbul: TU¨ SES, 1996), 52–54.
11. Mustafa Kemal, Eskisehir-Izmit Konusmalari (1923) (The Eskisehir-Izmit speeches) (Ankara: Kaynak Yayinlari, 1993), 104–5; Kiris¸ci and Winrow, 96.
12. Bilal S¸ims¸ir, Ingiliz Belgeleriyle Tu¨rkiye’de ‘‘Ku¨rt Sorunu’’ (1924–1938) (The
‘‘Kurdish problem’’ in British documents) (Ankara: Tu¨rk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1991), 58.
13. For more on the origins and development of the Shaykh Said rebellion, see Robert Olson, The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh Said Rebellion,
1880–1925 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989).
14. The state took advantage of the revolt to dispose of other Kurdish oppo- nents, including Sayyid Abdu¨lkadir, the president of the Istanbul-based Kurdish Society for Rise and Progress. When led to the gallows, separately from Shaykh Said, he and some of his followers were reputed to have exclaimed, ‘‘Long Live the Kurdish Idea! Long Live Kurdistan!’’ Ergu¨n Aybars, Istiklaˆl Mahkemeleri (In-
dependence tribunals) (Vols. 1, 2) (Izmir: Ileri Kitabevi, 1995), 309.
15. Tuncay, T. C. ’nde Tek-Parti Yo¨netmi’nin Kurulmasi (1923–1931), 139–43. 16. Keskin, ‘‘Tu¨rkiye’nin Ku¨rt Politikasi ve Resmi Ideoloji,’’ 58.
17. Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (London: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1961), 261.
18. In the 1930s, for instance, people who spoke Kurdish in public were fined five kurus per word. Muhsin Kizilkaya and Halil Nebiler, Du¨nden Yarina Ku¨rtler
(Kurds: From the past to the future) (Ankara: Yurt Kitap-Yayin, 1991), 36. 19. Taha Parla, Tu¨rkiye’de Siyasi Ku¨ltu¨ru¨n Resmıˆ Kaynaklari: Kemalist Tek-Parti ve CHP’nin Alti Ok’u (The official sources of Turkish political culture: the Kemalist
single-party and the RPP’s six arrows) (Istanbul: Iletisim Yayinlari, 1992), 182–83.
20. U¨ mit Cizre Sakallioglu, ‘‘Historicizing the Present and Problematizing the Future of the Kurdish Problem: A Critique of the TOBB Report on the Eastern Question,’’ New Perspectives on Turkey 14 (Spring 1996): 6; Tanil Bora, Milliyetc¸ili-
gin Kara Bahari (The dark springtime of nationalism) (Istanbul: Birikim Yayinlari,
1995), 74–75.
21. Henri J. Barkey and Graham E. Fuller, ‘‘Turkey’s Kurdish Question: Critical Turning Points and Missed Opportunities,’’ Middle East Journal 51, no. 1 (Winter 1997): 64.
22. Muglali died soon after his conviction. The Milan tribe whose members had been killed were grateful to the Democrats and, until recently, remained loyal to the Democrats and their successors in the 1960s and 1970s, the Justice party. Ironically, in recent years they have switched their allegiance to the Islamist Welfare party. Gu¨nay Aslan, Yas Tutan Tarih 33 Kursun (History in mourning: 33 bullets) (Istanbul: Pencere Yayinlari, 1989), 40–43.
23. Cem Erogul, Demokrat Parti: Tarihi ve Ideolojisi (The Democratic Party: Its history and ideology) (Ankara: Imge Kitabevi, 1990), 49.
24. Atilla Hun, Dogu ve Gu¨neydogu Bo¨lgelerinde C¸ ok Partili Sisteme Gec¸isten Gu¨nu¨- mu¨ze Gelismeler (Developments in the eastern and southeastern province since the
transition to multiparty rule) (Ankara: Yenidogus Matbaasi, 1995), 15. 25. McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds, 404.
26. Sadun Aren, TIP Olayi (1961–1971) (The TIP event) (Istanbul: Cem Yayi- nevi, 1993), 70–72. TIP’s involvement was not just with words. In 1967, many protest meetings were organized in Kurdish areas under the name of Eastern Meet- ings. TIP members were active in these, something that did not escape the notice of the authorities.
27. Aytekin Yilmaz, Etnik Ayrimcilik: Tu¨rkiye, Ingiltere, Fransa, Ispanya (Ethnic
separatism: Turkey, England, France, Spain) (Ankara: Vadi Yayinlari, 1994), 72. 28. Cu¨neyt Arcayu¨rek, Mu¨dahalenin Ayak Sesleri, 1978–1979 (The footsteps of
the intervention) (Istanbul: Bilgi Yayinevi, 1985), 272. This interview, conducted on September 6, 1979, did not see the light of day until Arcayu¨rek published his book.
29. SHP would eventually split and reunite and rename itself in the 1990s as the Republican People’s party (CHP).