Overview of factors and explanations for the gender difference in

There are a wide range of factors that have been identified by researchers to try to explain the difference in patterns of attainment amongst boys and girls. Some of the literature focuses on in-school factors that make no reference to gender as a construct, whereas others see this as the key to explaining the difference between boys’ and girls’ attainment. The researchers who do not focus on gender as a construct, look simply at pragmatic solutions to address the perceived problem, with some investigating single factors by way of explanation of the gendered pattern of performance, for example, literacy, learning styles, behaviour and peer pressure. Others, for example Myhill (2002), go further and believe that focusing on gender and gender specific factors is not helpful, rather the focus should be learning and pedagogical approaches, which she believes are more important than gender per se.

Researchers who do see gender identity, and how it is constructed as key, offer different explanations, looking from the perspective of gender, gender construction and identity, and come from different stances - modernist and poststructuralist. For example, Murphy and Elwood (1998) suggest that boys and girls respond differently to their experiences, which have been explained through biological difference, or differences linked to socialisation, which is external to the school environment. On the other hand, poststructuralist thinkers offer a different view. For example, Francis (2000) postulates that it is how boys and girls

perceive their gender identity and construct their gendered roles that are the defining factors. This focus on gender construction and identity recognises the role that the lived experiences of boys and girls outside of school, within their own social environment and culture, influence boys’ and girls’ thinking about their own gender identity, with the multiplicity of masculinities and femininities. This gender identity can then influence their learner identity within the school setting.

The complexity of factors and their intersection raise questions, both from the perspective of gender being interlinked with other social factors: class, disadvantage and ethnicity, and how all of this contributes to attainment or, conversely, underachievement (Forde et al., 2006). There is also the interplay of different factors within the school environment and how these factors can influence the attainment of pupils.

The factors and strategies that have been reviewed are wide-ranging but can be divided into two groups: ‘external’ factors – not the exclusive product of the school environment, for example those associated with biological differences, differences in socialisation, and the impact of societal changes during the latter part of the twentieth century; and ‘in- school’ factors - those that can be linked directly to the school, for example policy, pedagogy, ethos and behaviours, including intrinsic personal attributes of learners (Sukhnandan et al., 2000). However, it is acknowledged that separation into distinct categories would suggest mutual exclusivity of factors and could underplay the mutually inclusive nature of factors that can influence performance.

5.3.1 External factors

External factors are influential in gender construction and gender identity. Social and cultural environmental factors are important, including the influence of parents and family background (Powney,1996), but their complexity makes it difficult to conclude how this affects boys and girls. Socialisation is an area of research that has drawn attention. For example, babies and children develop traits that could be considered as gendered, largely influenced by how they are ‘brought up’, with consequential expectations and acceptance of ‘gendered’ behaviour. (Powney,1996; Sukhnandan et al., 2000). This early shaping of gender can influence their identity as a learner, and this can continue to be reinforced by parents, the family and society more generally. The case was made by Pahl and Kelly (2005), and Torsi (2005) that parents should be involved in understanding gender, as the influence of the family and parental support has been suggested as having an influence on

attainment (Mensah and Kiernan, 2010). Harris and Goodall (2007) go further in suggesting that parents can reinforce gender inequalities. Social class is linked to

perceptions of gender, for example working class reinforcing male dominance and female passivity (Paechter, 1998; Renold, 2004; Haywood and Mac an Ghaill, 2006). The

discussion on intersectionality (section 3.6) between gender, attainment and class discusses the middle class expectations of being successful academically, but also how this can be challenged by the gender identity that boys develop. This can lead to fluidity and

complexity in learner identity and is an example of how factors out of school can influence behaviour in school.

There is a belief that gender stereotyping can act as a barrier, and it is important to have flexibility in gender construction if it is not to hinder opportunities. “These limiting views of male and female identity endure at a time when we can least afford to limit students’ flexibility in their identity construction” (Guzzetti et al., 2002: ix). There have been several studies challenging stereotypical gender construction (Davies, 1997; Paechter, 1998; Francis, 2000). Mac an Ghaill (1994) and Martino and Berrill (2003) highlight the importance of understanding the complexity of the concept of gender, rather than seeing gender as two mutually exclusive categories, and how this plays out within a school setting. This is an important consideration when factors that impact on boys’ attainment, and the strategies to address underachievement, are examined. Although there is research on gendered patterns of attainment referring to gender construction and identities, gender construction as a factor cannot be considered in isolation. Indeed, how gender is socially influenced and constructed can impact on the development of the curriculum, learning and teaching, and the forming of relationships (Gilbert and Gilbert, 1998; Martino and

Palliotta-Chiarolli 2003). 5.3.2 In-school factors

The literature review on national policy in Chapter 4 confirmed that there is a mandate for schools to address gender related issues as part of the wider inclusion agenda. Rather than give an overview of all the factors that have been identified from the wide range of literature, and in light of the investigation discussed in the last chapter on the policy landscape that has developed in Scotland and the UK since the inception of equal

opportunities, a more focused approach has been used, centring on studies commissioned by the Government in Scotland, but including studies from other parts of the UK and from Australia. It was found that there had been little research before 1996 in Scotland (Powney,

1996) exploring boys’ underachievement from the perspective of school practice. There was limited research literature found that related specifically to factors relating to gendered patterns of attainment amongst academically able pupils.

The criteria for studies to be included in this review of the literature were: • A focus on in-school factors.

• The breadth of the study: those studies looking widely at the factors to seek reasons for the phenomenon, and/or strategies, and consequential impact.

• The methodology: where there was a wide-ranging literature review, and/or an in- school investigation using questionnaires or interviews with key stakeholders to seek views on pertinent factors, and strategies employed or trialled.

• The commissioning body for the study: those commissioned or sponsored by Governments or their agents in response to the political agenda of equal opportunities, or more specifically gender equity.

• The country the study was set in: all those in Scotland. In addition, because the equal opportunities agenda, and more specifically the GED, was a UK driven policy, studies set in other UK countries were also considered. One study from Australia was included because it did fit the criteria above and was strongly influenced by policy, which was followed up by a report on the impact of the strategies and interventions tried.

Some key questions were posed when reviewing these studies:

1. What research by governments or their agents, and researchers has been actively

promoted, to identify factors that could explain or contribute to the difference in attainment between boys and girls?

2. What methodologies were used in the study both to research the factors and to seek impact?

3. What were the factors identified in the literature believed to have contributed to boys’ underachievement?

4. What strategies and interventions were recommended to overcome the factors believed to impact on gendered patterns of attainment?

5. What criteria were used by researchers to critically appraise the strategies tested? 6. Which strategies demonstrated evidence of positive impact on improving the gender equity in attainment outcomes?

7. What were the overriding strategies that were having the greatest impact on addressing gendered patterns of attainment generally?

A comparative analysis of the studies selected, using the criteria above, is shown in Appendix 8. This analysis looks specifically at purposes and outcomes as well as the substance of the studies themselves, both from a policy perspective and the potential impact on the schools and the wider systems. The table is arranged chronologically to show the timing of the studies. The table captures the study methodology; the main country where the study was sited; who commissioned the study; whether there was a focus or a mention of those able pupils who were working at the highest levels of study in their year group; key points relating to the factors/explanations discussed in the study; strategies that had been found to be successful in reducing the gap or strategies suggested, and any recorded impact. A column was included to capture whether gender as a construct had been considered.

5.4 Analysis of the key studies