The 3-P model A model of learning

The 3-P model (Presage, Process, and Product) suggested by Dunkin and Biddle (1974) and Biggs (Biggs, 1985; 1987; 1989; 1999) offers a useful framework for understanding approaches to learning. The model summarizes Michel’s (1973, cited in Biggs, 1987a) description of how people behave in situations in terms of their encoding strategies and self-regulatory systems. A student’s encoding strategy of the learning context, or the institution as a whole, is represented by his or her motives to gain a qualification, to pursue academic interest, to gain high grades, or a combination of these. Similarly, the student’s self-regulatory system is represented by the strategies adopted (Biggs, 1987 a, p. 10). Biggs’ 3-P model encapsulates the complex nature of student learning by describing this as a result of the interaction between the student and teacher behaviours by focusing on the interrelationships between: 1) Presage factors, referring to what exists prior to the engagement, including the individual characteristics of the students and the situational constraints in which they find themselves, and 2) the process component described in terms of deep and surface approaches to learning. Whether a student adopts a deep or surface learning approach in a particular learning situation is seen as depending on a complex array of factors, including his or her conception of

learning, cultural factors, the nature of schooling, his or her upbringing, department characteristics and the teaching methods to which the student is exposed, learning orientation, and perception of the task requirements. A Deep Approach often involves an intrinsic curiosity and an intention to understand the underlying ideas of the course content and transforming these by relating to previous knowledge and experience, whereas a Surface Approach to learning often involves non-academic priorities, misunderstanding of course requirements and ideas presented, or requirements to take a course perceived as irrelevant to the student’s program (Biggs & Tang, 2007). 3) The product of learning

is mainly determined by the students’ approaches to learning (Biggs, et al., 2001, p 136; Biggs, 2003). Outcomes leading to the awarding of grades may be viewed quantitatively, e.g. how much is learned, or qualitatively, that is how well it is learned. As Deep approaches – in contrast to surface approaches - have generally been found associated with higher quality learning outcomes, deep learning has been identified as being more consistent with the goals of higher education (Marton and Säljö 1984; Prosser and Millar 1989; Trigwell & Prosser, 1991; Duff et al., 2004). And, as noted by several modern educational researchers (e.g. Biggs 1985, 1987a; Watkins and Hattie 1981), the distinction between rote learning of facts and concepts and achieving a deeper understanding of the subject has been present in discussions about the quality of education for several centuries, with general agreement among theorist that rote learning is a limited, and limiting, process. However, it should be noted that surface knowledge is not always inappropriate, as critical interpretation requires prior existence of basic knowledge.

However, just as Biggs has criticized the information-processing position for ignoring the role of personal and situational factors (Jones 2002), educational researchers favoring a more relational perspective regarded the context-specific perspective as incomplete in that the academic

was integrated in the model. The central idea was that the students´ perceptions of the teaching and learning context should be seen as a result of the interaction between their previous experiences of teaching and learning and the present context, in particular the students’ reactions to perceived situational demands (Biggs 2001). Study methods have also been found related to the perceived value of the course in question and the personal development gained as perceived by the students. Some students may be extrinsically motivated by specific career options or family pressure, while others are more motivated by the opportunity of personal or existential growth provided by a higher education. The complexity is further increased by the possibility of students holding multiple goals, and interactions between these can be heightened if the design of the course is being perceived as relevant to their ideas of a future career. Being intrinsically motivated in an academic task, on the other hand, suggests that participation in the process is experienced as an end to itself, and

intrinsically motivated students may be more likely to employ self-initiated exploratory strategies. Extrinsic goal-oriented students, on the other hand, appear to be more focused on external approval and external circumstances, e.g. acquiring the skills necessary to obtain a good job, and would therefore be expected to be likely to engage in the task in a more procedural way (Bye et. al. 2007). While the 3-P model has gone through many changes during the past three decades (e.g. Biggs, 1978; 1984; 1985; 1987; 1989; 1990; 1992; 1993a; 1999 cited by Jones, 2001), it is important to notice that the basic components: presage, process and product, have remained constant. According to Jones (ibid.), the most significant change in Biggs’ model (1990) is the transition from a linear model (as displayed in Model 1 in Figure 1) describing how personal and situational factors (presage) affect the approach adopted by the learner (process), which in turn influence the learning

results (product), to an interactive model.

Students characteristics e.g. prior experiences,

abilities, home background

Situational e.g. faculty, teaching methods, assessment)

Students’ approach to learning deep and surface

approach

Students’ learning outcomes qualitative and

quantitative

Presage Process Product

Figure 1. Model 1: General model of study processes (Source: Biggs, 1987a)

The interactive model (shown in Model 2 in Figure 2) suggests that, in addition to the linear progression, there are also feedback loops between the components of the model, e.g. between outcomes of learning and future learning, which means that the learner would reflect upon their learning experience leading to changes in motivation and the way they approach future learning tasks. Change in one component may thus lead to changes in all the other components (Biggs, 2001).

Students characteristics E.g. prior knowledge,

ability, motivation

Course and institutional context E.g. faculty, teaching methods, assessment Students’ approach to learning Deep or surface approach Students’ learning outcomes Quantitative/ qualitative

Presage Process Product

Figure 2. Model 2: Systems model of study processes (Source: Biggs, 1999)

According to Entwhistle (Entwistle and McCune, 2004), there is a surprising lack of emphasis on emotion in learning, and only concepts of negative emotions (anxiety or fear of failure) have been developed explicitly in educational psychology (ibid.). The relative absence of emotional

components in the learning models shown above has been criticized, as they may provide an essential addition to the assessment of preferences for information-processing modes and to the evaluation of meta-cognitive awareness and skills (Pintrich, 2004). Learners’ use of strategies may not be fully grasped without understanding the nature of their motivation for learning, e.g. which features of a task give rise to intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation and heighten curiosity instead of instilling a sense of self-efficacy (Gurtner et al., 2001). Research has documented that positive motivational beliefs such as self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation and the absence of negative emotions such as test anxiety are associated with greater use of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies and improved learning results (Garcia & Pintrich, 1994). While there is considerable

research indicating that both self-efficacy (the expectancy aspect), and test anxiety (the affective component) may influence student performance (e.g. Pintrich and De Groot, 1990; Pintrich 2000), only a few recent studies (Prat-Sala et al. 2010; Diseth, 2011) have included motivational

components in the SAL model, indicating a need for further investigation in future research.

Taken together, later research into student learning has been based on two main theoretical sources: information processing (IP), and contextually based research into students' approaches to learning (SAL). Both quantitative and qualitative methods have confirmed the existence of deep and surface learning to approaches. The basic tenet in the SAL tradition is that student learning should be viewed as taking place within the teaching/learning-context. Over the years, various instruments have been designed with the aim of predicting student performance and produce student learning profiles.