Participant observation

located  on  the  clinical  site  of  the  hospice,  created  relative  familiarity  with  these   parts  of  the  clinical  side  of  the  hospice  and  so  added  to  the  research  insights.  In   addition  to  making  and  facilitating  the  connections  to  networks  of  further   information  and  empirical  material  in  ethnographic  research  as  described  by   Neyland  (2008),  what  this  knowledge  allowed  was  that  when  the  marketing   team  needed  some  clinical  information  it  was  through  the  access  which  Sue   had  given,  and  the  use  of  the  resources  she  had  authorised  that  I  could  help  the   team.  

4.4.4 Participant observation  

The  mobility  and  independence  which  was  experienced  in  the  process  of   carrying  out  fieldwork,  which  in  turn  shaped  the  study,  was  juxtaposed  to  the   marketing  team  who  rarely  left  their  desks  or  the  marketing  office  and  were   situated  in  the  office  for  many  hours  each  day,  often  only  leaving  to  go  to  Tesco   by  car  to  buy  lunch.  Thus,  at  many  times  fieldwork  was  comprised  mainly  of   long  periods  of  ‘static  observation’  (Czarniawska,  2008,  p.  10)  of  the  marketing   team.  However,  whilst  the  practice  which  the  team  were  undertaking  might   have  appeared  relatively  immobile  and  fixed  in  the  marketing  office,  

simultaneously  the  team  were  very  active  online,  interacting  constantly  with   not  just  other  teams  but  a  variety  of  different  organisations  on  St  Angela’s   numerous  digital  platforms;  interacting,  posting  and  updating  content.  Pink   (2016)  described  the  digital  world  as  inseparable,  constantly  changing  and  an  

indistinguishable  part  of  everyday  practice;  however,  what  appears  to  have   received  less  concrete  consideration  by  writers  on  ethnographic  practice  is  how   to  engage  in  the  observation  of  this  work  in  an  ethnographic  study.  

A  study  by  Van  Droom  (2013)  outlined  several  methodological  implications  of  a   researcher  using  a  digital  device  in  an  ethnographic  study,  and  the  complex   ethical  issues  posed  in  researcher  participant  interactions  online  taking  place   during  fieldwork.  In  this  study  what  happened  was  that  the  practice  which  I   wanted  to  observe  was  being  conducted  online.  Thus,  in  the  process  of  carrying   out  fieldwork  it  quickly  became  apparent  that  some  attempt  to  incorporate  the   digital  element  of  marketing  practice  was  vital  as  observing  and  recording  only   what  was  seen,  heard  and  took  place  offline  in  the  marketing  office  represented   only  part  of  the  team’s  day-­‐to-­‐day  activities  for  St  Angela’s  (Ruppert  et  al.,   2013).  Incorporating  the  digital  aspect  of  the  tasks  undertaken  in  the  marketing   office  had  implications  for  the  techniques  for  recording  and  documenting  the   non-­‐verbal  activities  which  comprised  much  of  this  ethnography,  as  collecting   artefacts,  taking  field  notes  during  the  day  and  completing  a  field  journal  at   other  times,  was  not  sufficient.  To  capture  the  often-­‐momentary  digital  aspect   of  the  team’s  work  it  became  important  to  consider  how  best  to  include  this   online  aspect  of  practice  either  in  a  textual  format  or  represented  in  the  study   through  an  artefact.  Here  some  useful  insight  into  how  to  capture  the,  at  times,   fleeting  nature  of  what  was  observed  in  an  ethnographic  study  was  explored  by   Basil  (2011).  In  a  critique  of  the  use  of  photography  and  video  in  observational   research  Basil  discussed  using  photographs  to  supplement  field  notes  as  well  as  

primary  data  sources.  Drawing  on  these  insights,  in  this  study  a  representation   in  the  form  of  a  photograph  or  screen  shot  was  used  to  capture  the  digital   equipment  and  social  media  activity.  Following  Basil’s  suggestions  these   representations  aided,  prompted  and  encouraged  recall  of  these  aspects  of  the   team’s  practice  in  the  analysis  and  writing  up  process  as  well  as  becoming  part   of  the  diverse  collection  of  empirical  material  which  resulted  from  fieldwork.    

Wanting  to  do  more  than  sit,  observe  and  look  from  some  distance  at  the  team   and  the  work  they  were  undertaking,  opportunities  were  taken  to  become   involved  in  a  variety  of  tasks.  For  example,  updating  mailing  lists  and  analysing   St  Angela’s  Twitter  followers  were  undertaken  from  the  first  day  of  fieldwork   thus  trying  to  become  useful  and  accepted  through  participating  in  and  

contributing  to  the  marketing  work  being  undertaken  in  the  office  (Emerson  et   al.,  2011;  Hammersley  and  Atkinson,  2007).  Here  drawing  on  the  earlier  

suggestions  by  Atkinson  (2015)  of  the  immersive  aspects  of  ethnographic  work,   I  undertook  several  quite  mundane  and  physical  tasks  which  had  to  be  

undertaken  regularly  in  the  office  and  involved  the  leaflets,  flyers  and  posters   which  the  team  designed  and  produced.  For  example,  one  day  several  hours   were  spent  putting  together  250  give  away  bags  for  an  event  that  the  team  were   organising.  Significantly,  it  was  during  the  undertaking  of  these  and  other  such   activities  alongside  the  team  that  some  of  the  most  interesting  exchanges   about  marketing  practice  at  the  hospice  took  place.  

Considering  how  to  observe,  record  and  reflect  on  ethnographic  fieldwork  and   writing,  Alvesson  (2011)  considered  that  a  researcher  needs  to  include  elements   of  ‘deconstruction…destabilisation  [and]  reconstruction,  representation  and   rethinking’  (p.  108)  in  a  research  approach  to  challenge  the  researcher  to  look   further  and  wider  as  well  as  to  observe  these  kinds  of  inconsistencies  and   incidents.  Indeed,  Law  (2004)  advocated  that  a  researcher  should  continually   be  alert  to  the  ‘incoherence’  (p.  98)  in  a  research  setting  alongside  the  practice   which  is  maintained  and  presented  by  participants  for  the  researcher  to  

observe  and  record.  In  fieldwork  when  ‘the  production  line’  was  formed  to  get  a   mail-­‐out  underway  the  carefully  maintained  presentation  of  ‘a  marketing  team’  

slipped  and  broke  down.  Choosing  to  volunteer  to  undertake  these  quite   mundane  activities  is  discussed  in  the  literature  in  various  ways,  such  as  the   researcher  showing  commitment,  trying  to  fit  in,  but  also  undertaking  such   activities  to  pass  the  time,  especially  for  an  anxious  and  novice  researcher  at   the  often-­‐difficult  stage  at  the  beginning  of  fieldwork  (Maginn,  2007).  In  this   study  participation  had  consequences,  for  example,  during  the  surprisingly   physical  period  in  the  marketing  office  when  the  ‘production  line’  was  

underway  and  the  team  moved  away  from  computers  and  desks  and  retuned   the  radio  or  played  their  specially  designed  playlists  from  Spotify,  some  of  the   most  interesting  insights  into  marketing  practice,  as  well  as  the  team’s  

understanding  of  EOLC,  emerged  (Alvesson  and  Kärreman,  2007).    

A  further  consequence  of  this  active  participation  emerged  in  relation  to  my   own  research  practice,  as  it  was  in  the  act  of  opening  boxes  and  handling  

leaflets,  flyers,  letters  and  postcards,  in  this  production  line  type  exercise   alongside  the  team,  undertaking  this  unpopular  and  mundane  work,  that   attention  was  drawn  to  this  material  aspect  of  marketing  practice  which  might   otherwise  have  been  ignored.  The  mail-­‐outs  were,  therefore,  and  in  many  ways,   a  welcome  antidote  to  the  dominant  and  digital  aspect  of  the  practices  of   marketing.  When  the  team  spent  much  of  their  day  working  away  at  their   computers  the  participation  in  the  production  line  helped  to  reveal  further   aspects  of  marketing  practice.    

4.4.5 Interviews  

Participant  observation  throughout  the  three  months  of  fieldwork  was   accompanied  by  eighteen  semi-­‐structured  interviews  which  took  place  from   the  third  week  of  fieldwork  (Appendix  E).  A  characteristic  of  interviews   conducted  as  part  of  an  ethnographic  study,  where  knowledge  about   interviewees  themselves  and  of  their  work  can  surface,  has  recently  be  

described  by  Silverman  (2017)  who  suggested  that  the  researcher  must  ‘Ignore   what  you  know  already  about  your  interviewees.  Instead,  analyse  the  identities   that  they  actually  invoke  (and  when  they  invoke  them  and  with  what  local   consequences)’  (p.  154).  Focusing  on  both  the  situated  practice  of  the  team  and   the  performative  aspect  of  what  the  team  were  trying  to  undertake  interviews   undertaken  in  this  ethnographic  study  provided  another  place  and  opportunity   in  which  to  reason  about  and  examine  what  was  being  put  forward  in  

fieldwork.  In  other  words,  in  this  study  interviews  provided  an  occasion  to  

consider  the  team’s  practice,  and,  at  times,  what  took  place  in  the  interview   was  a  very  emotional  and  open  discussion  about  their  fears  and  concerns  as   well  as  what  they  enjoyed  about  their  work.  

Originally  included  in  the  research  design  of  this  study  to  ‘buttress  

observations’  (Bryman  and  Bell,  2015,  p.  498)  and  bolster  field  notes  before   fieldwork  started,  the  interviews  were  planned  around  an  interview  schedule   (Appendix  F)  (Brinkmann,  2013).  The  planning  and  structure  of  interviews  was   discussed  by  Brinkmann  and  Kvale  (2015),  and  certainly  in  line  with  their   observations  first  interviews  always  began  in  a  similarly  structured  manner   focusing  and  progressing  systematically  through  a  series  of  themes.  However,   as  the  interview  progressed,  and  particularly  where  it  was  possible  to  conduct   second  interviews  with  some  members  of  marketing,  conversations  changed.  

Czarniawska  (2014)  suggested  that  in  these  instances  interviews  could  become   more  of  a  discussion  about  the  experiences  we  had  shared  in  the  day-­‐to-­‐day   work  that  was  being  undertaken  in  the  team  and  around  matters  emerging   from  my  participation  in  the  research  setting.  Here  ethnography  demonstrates   the  contribution  of  this  methodology  to  give  time  for  the  researcher  to  reflect   on  what  is  emerging  from  the  field,  for  example  what  is  being  collected  as  well   as  observed  during  fieldwork,  and  to  adjust,  as  when  a  theme  emerges  in   fieldwork  there  is  time  to  pursue  this  further  before  fieldwork  ends.  In  this   study  two  interviews  were  conducted  with  most  members  of  the  marketing   team  creating  an  opportunity  to  return,  and  return,  to  several  matters.    

Interviews  in  this  study  were  scheduled  during  the  working  day;  subsequently   the  only  available  place  or  space  for  interviews  during  fieldwork  at  the  business   park  was  a  series  of  small  rooms  that  had  to  be  pre-­‐booked.  Circling  the  bank   of  desks  in  the  main  hospice  offices,  with  full  length  glass  windows  and  very   thin  partition  walls,  the  interview  could  be  seen  and  quite  possibly  heard  by   those  nearest  working  at  their  desks.  Silverman  (2017)  reminds  the  interviewer   to  consider  the  rationality  of  the  interviewee  suggesting  that  in  an  interview   the  interviewee  is  continual  relating  directly  to  their  personal  situation  and   context  and  this  was  highly  relevant  to  this  project  and  in  this  study  the   relation  to  place  or  setting  surfaced  in  several  interviews.    

An  interesting  contribution  to  ‘situated’  or  real  time  (Weick,  2002)  reflexivity   of  the  research  participants  developed  in  fieldwork  as  interviews  provided  an   opportunity  for  the  interviewee  to  pause,  to  sit  back  and  to  consciously  reflect   on  their  environment.  Situated  in  amongst  his  working  environment  at  St   Angela’s,  in  one  instance  Alan,  the  CEO,  was  talking  about  the  lack  of  pictures   of  patients  in  the  hospice  offices  at  the  business  park  when  he  stopped  almost   mid-­‐sentence,  looked  around  his  office  and  out  into  the  hospice  offices  as  if   noticing  and  realising  for  the  first  time  that  these  walls  did  not  actually  display   such  pictures.  A  similar  incident  took  place  when  Sarah,  the  graphic  designer,   who,  right  in  the  middle  of  the  interview,  again  as  if  for  the  first  time,  re-­‐

examined  her  contribution  to  the  design  of  the  office  in  which  she  was  sitting   at  the  business  park.  In  her  work  exploring  participant  centred  reflexivity,   Riach  (2009)  referred  to  ‘sticky  moments’  (p.  366)  in  interviews,  which  she  

suggested  are  moments  when  participants  acknowledge  ‘their  own  

positionality  or  biographically  created  knowledge  in  relation  to  dialogue  and   practice’  (ibid).  In  this  study  this  realisation  surfaced  amidst  the  fieldwork   interview  when  suddenly  the  dialogue  caught  up  with  a  situation,  requiring  a   pause  or  ‘sticky  moment’  of  personal  realisation.  Here  in  the  interviews  with   both  Alan  and  Sarah  the  idea  of  a  sticky  moment  materialised  from  the  setting   in  which  the  interviews  were  taking  place  as  the  interviewee  became  aware  for   the  first  time  of  their  environment  and  its  relation  to  what  they  were  saying.    

One-­‐to-­‐one  interviews  were  at  times  a  space  in  which  the  team  discussed  their   individual  struggles.  This  was  described  by  Czarniawska  (2014)  as  the  

interviewee  trying  to  interpret  their  experiences,  and  for  those  in  more  senior   positions  a  place  where  they  could  voice  concerns  in  what  can  at  times  be  the   quite  isolated  experience  of  leading  or  managing  within  an  organisation  (p.  48-­‐

49).  Interviewees  tried  to  find  and  rationalise  their  place  in  St  Angela’s  as  they   set  about  developing  and  establishing  themselves  as  well  as  their  work.  This   was  also  considered  to  be  the  hermeneutic  aspect  of  interviews  in  that  at  times   exchanges  in  interviews  began  to  actively  empower  participants  to  make  and   reflect  on  all  that  was  taking  place  at  the  hospice  (Silverman,  2017).  As  such  the   exchanges  in  these  little  rooms  were  at  times  mutually  generative,  producing   and  triggering  further  subsequent  themes  of  enquiry  to  follow  in  the  marketing   office  after  each  interview,  both  for  the  researcher  and  also  for  individuals  in   their  own  practice.  Thus,  the  process  of  exploring  themes,  beginning  analysis   and  trying  to  understand  what  was  emerging  from  fieldwork  began  in  

fieldwork  and  was  not  just  carried  out  after  observation,  participation  and   interviews  had  ended.  

4.4.6 Documents, photographs and other artefacts  

From  desk  research  alongside  fieldwork,  but  also  during  participant  

observation  in  the  marketing  office,  many  documents  relating  to  St  Angela’s   activities,  but  also  more  generally  EOLC,  were  amassed.  Such  documents,   which  in  this  study  were  collected  during  fieldwork,  were  described  by  Prior   (2014)  as  conceptual  webs  (p.  366).  Suggested  to  show  the  unfolding  of  a   narrative  which  illuminated  issues  and  revealed  some  history,  or  specifically   the  chronology,  characters  and  plot  (p.  367),  in  this  study  they  gave  an  account   of  recent  developments  in  EOLC.  The  contribution  from  documents  and  other   textual  artefacts  such  as  leaflets  and  postcards  was  to  provide  contextual   understanding  for  what  was  being  observed  in  fieldwork,  as  well  as  the   understanding  that  the  hospice  did  not  exist  in  isolation.  The  artefacts   highlighted  the  service  providers  or  actors  in  EOLC,  including  government,   stakeholders  and  other  organisations.  The  documents  contributed  to  the  study   both  by  facilitating  the  exploration  of  EOLC  and  also  for  verification  of  what   was  emerging  from  the  observation  and  fieldwork  in  the  context  of  a  sector.    

The  texts  which  became  part  of  this  ethnography  study  must  also  be  

recognised  for  having  a  distinct  role  or  part  to  play,  discussed  by  Rapley  (2007)   as  the  way  a  text  can  be  structured  and  organised  to  persuade  the  reader  of  its