3.1 Introduction
4.3 Practical Impacts
4.4.3 Perceptive & Social Feedback
Argyris (2002) suggests that each member of an organisation or community constructs their own representation of the whole community, as any community is virtual and they are always perceived by each individual as being different, the picture is always incomplete and people are continually working to add pieces and to get a view of the whole. They need to know their place in the hierarchy it is argued. An organisation or a community is like an organism each of whose cells contains a particular, partial, changing image of itself in relation to the whole. And like such an organism, the organisation’s practice stems from
those very images. Organisation is an artefact of individual ways of representing organisation. Hence, our inquiry into organisational learning must concern itself not with static entities called organisations, but with an active process of organising which is, at root, a cognitive enterprise or community. Individual members are continually engaged in attempting to know the organisation and to know themselves in the context of the organisation. At the same time their continuing efforts to know and to test their knowledge represent the object of their inquiry.
Members of the community require external references and there must be public representations of organisational theory to which individuals can refer. This is the function of organisational maps or structure charts. These are the shared descriptions of the organisation which individuals jointly construct and use to guide their own understanding of the community. Organisational theory, continually constructed through individual enquiry, is encoded in private images and in public maps. These are the media of organisational learning as defined by Argyris & Schön (1978). With this set of moves we can see how Argyris (2002) connected up the individual world of the worker and practitioner with the world of organisation and community. Their focus is much more strongly on individual and group interactions and defences than upon systems and structures. By looking at the way that people jointly construct maps it is then possible to talk about organisational learning (involving the detection and correction of error) and organisational theory‐in‐use. For organisational learning to occur, ‘teaching agents’, discoveries, inventions, and evaluations must be embedded in organisational memory (Argyris & Schön 1978). If it is not encoded in the images that individuals have and the maps they construct with others, then ‘the individual will have learned but the organisation will not have done so.
For Argyris & Schön (1978), learning involves the detection and correction of error through feedback (or loops). Where something goes wrong, it is suggested an initial port of call for many people is to look for another strategy that will address and work within the governing variables. In other words, given or chosen goals, values, plans and rules are operationalised rather than questioned. According to Argyris & Schön (1974), this is single‐loop learning. An alternative response is to question the governing variables themselves, to subject them to critical scrutiny. This they describe as double‐loop learning. Such learning may then lead to
an alteration in the governing variables and a shift in the way in which strategies and consequences are framed. This is how Argyris & Schön (1978) described the process in the context of organisational learning.
When the error is detected and is corrected this permits the organisation to carry on its present policies or achieve its present objectives, then that error‐and‐correction process is single‐loop learning. Single‐loop learning is like a thermostat that learns when it is too hot or too cold and turns the heat on or off. The thermostat can perform this task because it can receive information (the temperature of the room) and take corrective action. Double‐ loop learning occurs when error is detected and corrected in ways that involve the modification of an organisation’s underlying norms, policies and objectives such as the room doesn’t need heating as it is a Bank Holiday.
Single‐loop learning seems to be present when goals, values, frameworks and, to a significant extent, strategies are taken for granted. The emphasis is on "techniques and making techniques more efficient" (Usher & Bryant 1989). Any reflection is directed toward making the strategy more effective. Double‐loop learning, in contrast, "involves questioning the role of the framing and learning systems which underlie actual goals and strategies in many respects the distinction at work here is the one used by Aristotle, when exploring technical and practical thought. The former involves following routines and some sort of pre‐ set plan and is both less risky for the individual and the organisation, and affords greater control".
In an organisational or community approach this is synthesised by Argyris & Schön (1978) as “Single‐loop learning is characterised when, members of the organisation respond to changes in the internal and external environment of the organisation by detecting errors which they then correct so as to maintain the central features of theory‐in‐use". Further Double‐loop learning is characterised by "Those sorts of community enquiries which resolve incompatible organisational norms by setting new priorities and weightings of norms, or by restructuring the norms themselves together with associated strategies and assumptions (Argyris & Schön 1978). They further describe the concept of double‐loop learning (DLL) in which an individual, organisation or entity is able, having attempted to achieve a goal on
different occasions, to modify the goal in the light of experience or possibly even reject the goal. Single‐loop learning (SLL) is the repeated attempt at the same problem, with no variation of method and without ever questioning the goal. These concepts are shown in Figure 4.4 in the derived process models showing how the physical and social feedback loops create the double loop.
Figure 4.4 ‐ Double Loop Principles Applied to Physical and Social Measures. Adapted from Argyris (2015)
To fully appreciate the theory, we require a model of the processes involved, to this end Argyris and Schön (1974) initially looked to three elements which are illustrated in Figure 4.4
Governing variables those dimensions that people are trying to keep within acceptable limits. Any action is likely to impact upon a number of such variables – thus any situation can trigger a trade‐off among governing variables, in our case the brief and as‐built data defining the asset
Action strategies the moves and plans used by people to keep their governing values within the acceptable range, such as updates to the brief, approved changes and modifications to the asset during its lifetime.
Consequences are the result of an action. These can be both intended, those which the actor believe will result in an outcome and unintended which the actor did not anticipate
Where the consequences of the strategy used are what the person wanted, then the theory is confirmed. This is because there is a match between intention and outcome. There may be a mismatch between intention and outcome. In other words, the consequences may be unintended. They may also not match, or work against, the person’s governing values. Argyris and Schön suggest two responses to this mismatch and these can be seen in the notion of single and double‐loop learning. In terms of deploying and applying this technique it should be considered as to how the formulation and implementation of an intervention strategy is approached and structured. Argyris and Schön (1978) identify that this involves the delivery of six phases of work to provide such a structured methodology. The approach incorporates the essence of the double loop approach and is described in in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 – Six Phases of Work (Argyris and Schön (1978))
Phase Activity