Points of difference across the three studies

In addition to the similarities between the enabling environment elements identified in the three studies to influence drinking-water programs, there were also differing themes and varying degrees to which different elements of the enabling environment was found to influence the drinking-water programs. This section highlights elements identified as influential in one study but not in the other two and provides insights into the reasons for the differences.

2.1.Contrasting Themes

The decisions to adopt and continue use of HWTS products and technologies by target households was driven primarily by individual preferences rather than the need to treat water from a health perspective, regardless of water quality, according to respondents in the study. The story is

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the opposite for the climate change adaptation study in which the aspiration to adapt drinking-water systems to climate change, was driven by the sense that adaptation was necessary, even in the face of barriers to adaptation. This difference in the perception about the need for these drinking-water programs—HWTS practices and climate change adaptation— influenced the types of enabling environment elements that affected the achievement of the objectives—scale-up and sustainability of HWTS practices and climate change adaptation of drinking-water systems.

In the HWTS study, the decision-makers—target individuals and households—are buying a product, one they are not always convinced they need but are sometimes motivated to buy,

according to respondents. As such, the product needs to be compatible with the users, that is, consistent with their existing values, which are determined primarily by informal rules. These informal rules are, therefore, a major driver for the decision-makers. Clasen (2008) conducted reviews of published reports and interviews with individuals from implementing organizations, research institutions and consulting organizations to determine effective ways to scale up HWTS practices. His first recommendation was that implementing organizations focus on the users’ needs and not prejudge that health is the ultimate goal, because many believe that diarrhea is not a

problem. This idea of compatibility has been shown to be significantly correlated with adoption of practices. In a study to determine the motivations of mobile banking users, Al-Jabri and Sohail (2012) found that compatibility was significantly and positively associated with adoption. They surveyed 330 individuals in Saudi Arabia and asked questions related to how mobile banking matched their lifestyles and their values.

In addition to the characteristics of the product matching values, respondents in the HWTS study also noted that target individuals were motivated by social status and as such the effectiveness

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of the product was not necessarily the driver for adoption. This is markedly different from the responses from respondents in the climate change adaptation study.

It was noted by respondents in the climate change study that more information on types of adaptation, the benefits of the different types, and the impact on the overall environment was needed. As a result both formal and informal partnerships were a recurring theme in the study. The respondents believed that this partnership will facilitate effective adaptation as lessons can be learned about what works and what does not from organizations that have adapted their systems to climate change. Additionally, respondents noted the importance of including climate change in policies as this would improve the chances that adaptation would be funded. Formal rules were thus a recurring theme and seemed to have a major influence on decisions to adapt.

The motivations of decision makers in the HWTS and climate change study influenced the type of enabling environment elements as well as the degree to which these enabling environment elements influenced decisions.

2.2.Understanding the Difference in the Degree of Influence of the Enabling Environment Elements on HWTS and Climate Change Studies

In the climate change adaptation study, in which formal rules dominated, the government is a critical actor in bringing about effective adaptation of drinking-water systems. This study looked primarily at piped water systems and as a result, the water utilities were partially government funded and/or under government regulations. This is one reason why formal rules were prevalent and the role of governments was reiterated. Additionally, these utilities are formal organizations, specifically utilitarian organizations, bound by both internal and external policies. Utilitarian organizations are organizations with groups of individuals that receive compensation for work carried out. Although, individual cultures and values exist within these organizations, the individuals are bound by policies

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that dictate what they can do and how they should do it because they are compensated for their activities (Barkan, 2013). These drinking-water systems also provide water to hundreds, sometimes tens of thousands, of people and the health of these people with regard to drinking-water safety is dependent on the capacities of the organizations that manage the drinking-water systems. Because of this, the organizations are bound by rules on how to act to ensure that public health is safe (e.g. public service commission rule for the government of water utilities 150CSR7, West Virginia, U.S.A.) and these rules are put in place by both the organizations and governmental or government mandated organizations that can oversee organization actions and demand changes, if necessary.

This is considerably different from the HWTS context. The decision to adopt HWTS

practices is made by one individual or one household and the rules that guide the decision-making of this individual/household regarding the choice to treat the drinking-water are not written contracts. These rules are unwritten but can be just as binding as the rules that guide the formal organizations that make decisions about adapting drinking-water systems to climate change. Nichter (1985) found that in Sri Lanka, there is a cultural belief about water temperatures that determine how people treat their water. For example, cold water from a deep well is not given to people suffering from a cold and hot water, from being exposed to the sun, is not given to people suffering from heating illnesses such as a fever. If cold water is the only available option, the water will be boiled but then cooled slightly, to tepid, with cool water before giving it to an ill person. This is done to reduce the shock effect of the cold water as this is believed to compound illness.

The impacts of the decision to treat drinking-water using HWTS products and technologies is generally limited to that individual/household. These are personal decisions that do not affect the general population and so even though governments give recommendations about improving the safety of drinking-water, they do not demand it.

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