Positioning and identity

… who one is … is always an open question with a shifting answer depending upon the positions made available within one’s own and others’ discursive practice and within those practices.

(Davies and Harré, 1999:35).

The concept of positioning is a key component in identity formation viewing the individual as a constantly evolving being, which can be reactive and adaptive to the social environment (Davies and Harré, 1999). It enables identity to be considered beyond identification labels. Identity is shaped by positioning and ‘is understood in relation to the different types of position we hold in life’, (Biesta et al., 2011:94). In social constructionist approaches, positioning can be used to define how identity is produced (Burr, 2003). It is based on how our thoughts and

understandings are acquired through social interactions and can be seen as ‘patterns of beliefs in the members of a relatively coherent speech community’, (Harré and Moghaddam, 2003:4). Positioning theory enables us to understand the intentions, meanings and dynamics of these social exchanges with others. However, these can be restricted by the rights, duties and

obligations that we feel towards others (Harré and van Lagenhove, 1999). We can be positioned as strong or weak, powerful or powerless, dependent or independent, yet positions can change as they are not fixed but fluid. Positions can be claimed or rejected; this forms the basis of identity construction.

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Positioning sits well in a social constructionist framework as it is dependent on social exchanges and their interpretation. It is not seen as a ‘general theory’ but as a ‘starting point for reflecting upon the many different aspects of social life’, (Harré and van Lagenhove, 1999:9-10). This allows individuals, through shared history and current events to understand what goes on in an interaction. No two interactions are alike or predictable due to the power of positioning along with morals and rights to speak in certain ways. A person would feel that they have certain duties and obligations to fulfil depending on the position they have assigned themselves or understand from their social encounters as to what is the expected behaviour (Harré and van Lagenhove, 1999). Positioning theory offers something different to role theory in terms of allowing flexibility and positions to be developed in the social environment rather than being a fixed and generalised role. For example, a mother’s behaviour and conversations would also reflect the position that she holds e.g. as a caring mother who is constantly available to attend to the needs of her children or as a mother with agency who encourages independence and

autonomy in her children. This will also be influenced by her own emotions and personal history of what it is to be a mother (Davies and Harré, 1999). Positions can be in classified in three different ways (Harré and van Lagenhove, 1999): deliberate self positioning, positioning by others or positioning by another force (for example, management, job requirements).

Deliberate self positioning (Harré and van Lagenhove, 1999), can be used to display an aspect of identity ‘I am a good mother’. Through this example the woman would position herself firstly as a mother and secondly as ‘good’ this signifies to the listener the importance of

motherhood but also the importance of being ‘good’ to her children or ‘good’ at being a mother. This could then justify her actions if they are under the umbrella of presenting herself as a ‘good mother’ which alludes to working in the best interests of her child.

Educational success can lead to an increase in agency and self confidence; this may affect how a woman may position herself in a relationship (Biesta et al., 2011). Through education she may feel increased control and power over other aspects of her life. Positioning in this context acknowledges the power individuals hold, in accepting or rejecting the position offered to them, or through agency creating their own self positions (Burr, 2003).

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Positioning by individuals or groups occur when people deliberately position someone else, either in their presence or in their absence. For example, the mother may feel forced into a position by her husband or child, for example, ‘That’s your job!’ Alternatively, the mother may purposely position the father stating, ‘They are your children too’, implying that he has duties and obligations to follow as a father. Positioning also includes the perceived right to speak or right to be heard in a subject position (Tan and Moghaddam, 1999). For example, if someone is positioned as a leader then they are more likely to be given power and authority to speak on behalf of a group. This can impose restrictions on the possibilities of what a person can do; this can occur through first or second order positioning. First order positioning (Walton, Coyle and Lyons, 2003), accounts for how a woman positions herself as a mother. For example, she may feel that there are limits to how she allows her study to impact on the family based on her perception of her role and responsibilities as a mother. However, identity is not constructed independently but dependent on interactions with others. Second order positioning occurs when first order positioning is questioned or has to be negotiated. For example, if a family member questions the woman’s interpretation and behaviour as a mother since entering into HE, this may lead to unrest for the woman student. Through having her concept of a mother questioned by others her identity may be reconstructed and reflected upon.

The concept of intergroup positioning is useful as group membership influences and controls how participants position themselves within group interactions (Tan and Moghaddam, 1999). For example, a woman may position herself in a lecture debate about equality in a contrasting manner to how she positions herself in a similar discussion with her family. In a student environment the woman might feel that she is legitimately entitled and expected to hold and express an opinion. In some families this opinion may be constrained due to the positions held by other family members or their attitude towards education.

The third aspect of positioning (by another force) could be illustrated by an organisation such as a college or university positioning the woman as an HE student with certain contractual

obligations to follow i.e. attendance or study requirements. These may affect how accountable the woman feels and her resulting behaviour. This could lead to identity conflict as she feels

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tension between her position as a student who is required to attend a lecture on time and as a mother wanting to take her children to school. These synchronous demands can place pressure and strain on a mother forcing her to make choices between student and mothering demands on her time.

These positions can be tacit, as the position taken up is enacted unconsciously and intentional where a person seeks to change or challenge the position that they have been offered.

3.2.1 Positioning and emotions

Emotions play a key part in positioning as they reflect the moral values and expectations of a culture and are linked to the duties and obligations that are played out in social life (Parrott, 2003). Emotions reflect the attitudes and values of the groups that we belong to and affect how we experience feelings such as shame, pride, guilt or anger. Emotions are socially constructed and a representation of a state and how one feels rather than something that is actually there (Walton, Coyle and Lyons, 2003). Emotions do not operate in isolation from positioning and social encounters. As discussed in Chapter 2.3, guilt is an emotion women may experience when trying to balance time with their family and time to devote to their HE studies. Hence, a mother may feel guilt if she perceives that she is not spending enough time with her children; this relates to her socially constructed ideals of her role with her children and wanting to be ‘good enough’ as a mother (Winnicott, 1996). Conflict may occur if a mother feels torn between wanting to achieve at her studies but also wanting to shield her relationship with her children from harm or damage.

Positioning and emotions are interlinked and an emotional position such as guilt can either be accepted or rejected. Guilt was evident in the women’s accounts in the literature in Chapter 2.4, as well as a key theme raised in my tutorials with women students prior to the research

commencing. Parrott (2003) uses the term counter emotions to describe how an emotion can be rejected and replaced by a different emotion. This then contradicts the initial position offered. For example, the position of guilt could be rejected by the woman student and given a counter emotion of pride through justification that not spending as much time with the children has

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developed her children’s skills of independence or resilience. A mother than may feel motivated to learn as she has justified that it is beneficial to her children or to herself. Within positioning theory motivation is seen as the ‘orientation of individual people to the world about them; what they experience themselves as wanting at a particular time’, (Apter, 2003:16). How a woman orientates or positions herself may be dependent on what she is striving to achieve, this then may affect how she positions herself or allows herself to be positioned at that time.

The capacity to position themselves and others will differ from person to person in terms of capability to take up different positions, willingness to reposition themselves or others and the difference in their power to achieve this (Harré and van Lagenhove, 1999). For these reasons, positions can be claimed or rejected. This could have effects on identity construction as this constant positioning helps to shape how a person perceives themselves based on interactions with others e.g. being a ‘loving’ mother or a ‘working’ wife contributing to the family finances.