Posttests

In this study, language development was measured via the use of both individual tailor- made posttests and individual recordings. The individual tailor-made posttests included a paper and pencil task delivered via Powerpoint. The individual recording consisted of four oral

prompts. For the paper and pencil task, language development was operationalized as follows: a correct response for multiple-choice items that were based on a lexis-based LRE or a form-based LRE. For the oral task, language development was operationalized as follows: (1) the accurate use of a lexical item during the spontaneous recording that originated in a lexis-based LRE in the preceding tasks, (2) the accurate use of a grammatical structure that originated in a form-based LRE in the preceding tasks.

As detailed in Table 4, learners completed the posttest on the Monday following the completion of two pedagogical tasks (Wednesday and Friday). The posttest activities took place in the language laboratory, a large computer room equipped with 30 individual work stations, microphones, and recording software. To measure language development, researchers often employ a pretest, posttest, delayed-posttest design. Gains between pretest and posttests are taken as evidence of language development. However, one of the limitations of a pre-post-delayed posttest design is that items are created a priori making it more difficult to determine the

relationship between task performance and language development. From an SCT perspective, the production of language (e.g., LREs) between learners modifies cognition (e.g., L3 development). It follows that languaging is an important mechanism for internalization (Swain, et al., 2011). In order to establish a more direct link between LREs initiated by the learners during learner-learner interaction, the development of individual tailor-made posttest items can help identify

task, I developed individual tailor-made posttest items that were based on LREs produced by each learner. In order to identify LREs, I listened to the audio-recordings for each dyad in the days following their recordings and I identified some LREs. After having identified the LREs for each task, I created posttest items. Drawing on the work of Swain and Lapkin (1998, 2001), I created items that targeted both lexis and grammar. Items were presented using powerpoint. In Example 1, learners produced a form-based LRE. Example 2 provides the corresponding posttest items.

Example 1: Form-based LREs produced during the task 1 Thomas : L’écran a* devenu

[The screen has* become] 2 Marta : A* devenu rouge

[Has* become red] 3 Thomas : Rouge

[Red]

4 Marta : Devenir ¿No va con être cuando es passé composé?

[To become doesn’t it go with to be when it’s in the simple past? 5 Thomas: Oui, je crois.

[Yes, I think so.] 6 Marta: Sí, ¿no?

[Yes, right?]

7 Thomas: Et l’écran est devenu

[And the screen has become] Example 2: Item from the posttest

8 L’ écran _____ devenu bleu. [The screen ______ become blue.]

a. est [is] b. a [has] c. lui [him] d. mon [mine]

It was originally conceived that each learner would complete a posttest with only items that originated in their own interactions; however, this was not optimal for this classroom-based study given that each learner had a different number of total items due to the variations of LREs

produced during the interactions. Therefore, several versions of the posttests were created for each posttest and varied over the course of the semester. In class, learners were assigned to the posttests that included their own relevant items. For the first posttest, a total of five versions of the posttests were created with 61 items each. For the second posttest a single version was created with a total of 91 items. For the third posttest, a total of six versions were created with 60-73 items. And finally, for the fourth posttest, a single version was created with 112 items. As a result, the posttests contained some items that did not originate in one student’s interactions. The reason for creating a unified version for the second and fourth posttest is that a number of items were similar due to the controlled nature of the task. To measure L3 development, I only analyzed LREs produced by one learner in relation to hers or his performance on the posttest items. Items that did not originate in their dyads were not considered for analysis.

The oral task comprised four individual recordings, each lasting two and a half minutes. For the first recording, learners produced an individual recording that directly corresponded to the topic of the first task of the series (i.e., the decision-making task or the text reconstruction). For the second recording, learners produced an individual recording that directly corresponded to the topic of the second task of the series (i.e., the story completion or the dictogloss). For the third and fourth recording, learners were asked to create a total of ten questions (five for each task). To target language development with the oral component, each oral prompt was directly related to the topic of the tasks. For instance, during the first decision-making task, learners exchanged information about apartments and selected one apartment. This task promoted the use of vocabulary related to housing (e.g., location, furniture, cost) and related to question formation. During the text reconstruction, learners focused on a text that talked about planning a visit to a famous city. This task promoted language related to tourism and locations; however, this task did

not target question formation directly. Nonetheless, the third oral prompt (questions) was

included in order to keep the same test format (a pedagogical decision). The relationship between the topics for the oral production posttest and the pedagogical tasks are detailed in Table 6.

Table 6: Theme correspondences between posttests and pedagogical tasks

Prompt Oral prompts Questions Relation to tasks

Posttest 1

1

Describe the best apartment

Five questions about your apartment

Decision-making task # 1 Selecting an apartment 2 Discuss your worst experience living with

a roommate

Five questions about

having a roommate Story completion #1 Living with a roommate

Posttest 2

3 Discuss what you did last week-ends activity

Five questions about

your last week ends Text reconstruction #1 Visiting places in Puebla

4

Discuss activities with your best friend

Five questions about how your met your friend Dictogloss task #1 Making plans Posttest 3 5 Discuss Mexican health practices and habits

Five questions that your nutritionist could ask you

Decision-making task # 2

Discovering health practices around the world

6 Present your high school eating habits your nutritionist could Five questions that ask you Story completion #2 Changing eating habits Posttest 4 7 Discuss problems with your computer

Five questions that a technician could ask you

Text reconstruction #2 Fixing technology problems

8

Describe your favorite computer and

computer sites

Five questions that a friend could ask you about computers

Dictogloss task #2 Discovering an illegal music download sites