• No results found

Practitioner’s Takeaway

Crisis communication practitioners should differentiate the emerging public crises form traditional corporate crises and be fully aware the characteristics of public crises as the

conclusion discussed above. Facing more active publics in the digital age of the prevalent social media, it is pivotal to identify and segment publics based on the prototype of public crisis communication in order to increase the possibility of achieving communication goals with these publics.

Corporate actors, managers, and executives should acknowledge that publics approach corporations hoping to get organizational awareness of their concerns and proactive corrections to the problem. More and more cases happened globally prove the classic crisis management strategies (such as a refusal, rebuttal, bolstering, etc. illustrated in Benoit’ theory) would worsen the situation and trigger more counteractions from publics. Corporations should also explore the changing power relations and power dynamics with publics in daily practice to prevent the occurrence of public crises. Last but not least, corporations should update its crisis management team with experts with linguistics, technical communication, and computational science

backgrounds and develop a crisis response system focusing on public discourse and rhetorical situation analysis through the communication network model.

For crisis communication and management scholars and educators, it is high time to move from an organization standpoint to a networking vision about crisis conceptualization and theorization. With this networking vision, scholars and educators can then design more valid research and pedagogy that respond to the changing landscape of public relations, train

practitioners on the methods to fully examine the many complexities in the process and aftermath of crisis, and educate students in relevant majors a “public awareness” that always considers publics and their needs.

In Chinese language, crisis (wēi jī, 危机) is a concept of both risk and opportunity. It is

an expression of classic philosophy about how things are interdependent and mutually transform.

Crisis brings the kairos for making right decisions and changing for the better in business, personal life, and social development. The wisdom for making this happen is to closely examine the intricacies in crisis ecosystem and then take responsible moves.

REFERENCES

2013 CCTV 315 program text record. (2013). Finance Sina. Retrieved from

http://finance.sina.com.cn/consume/20130315/223614850175.shtml

315 in action. (2012). CNTV. Retrieved from http://315.cntv.cn/315zxd/all/index.shtml

A 17-year-old Sold Kidney for Apple Products. (2012). CCTV.com. Retrieved from

http://news.cntv.cn/society/20120406/116881.shtml

About us—CCA (2014). China Consumers Association. Retrieved from

http://www.cca.cn/public/detail/851_3.html

About us—CCA (2015). China Consumers Association. Retrieved from

http://www.cca.cn/En/AboutUs.html

Antony, M. G., & Thomas, R. J. (2010). This is citizen journalism at its finest: YouTube and the

public sphere in the Oscar grant shooting incident, New Media & Society, 12(8), 1280-

1296.

Apple Responded to CCTV 315. (2013, March 15). Tech Sina. Retrieved from

http://tech.sina.com.cn/it/apple/2013-03-15/23538150684.shtml

Apple Inc. (2013). To consumers: A statement about after-sale services. Retrieved from

Avery, E. J., Lariscy, R. W., Kim, S., & Hocke, T. (2010). A quantitative review of crisis

communication research in public relations from 1991 to 2009. Public Relations Review,

36, 190-192.

Basic introduction of CCTV. (2017, November 17). CCTV. Retrieved from

http://www.cctv.cn/2017/11/17/ARTIt8ZGt9MNebBmr5DHAMcd171117.shtml

Bastian M., Heymann S., & Jacomy M. (2009). Gephi: an open source software for exploring

and manipulating networks. International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social

Media.

Beck, U. (1999). World Risk Society. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Beck, U. (2000a). What is Globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press.

Beck, U. (2000b). Risk society revisited: Theory, politics and research programmes. In B. Adam,

U. Beck & J. van Loon (Eds.), The risk society and beyond: Critical issues for social

theory (pp. 211–229). London: Sage.

Beck, U. (2006). Cosmopolitan vision. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

Beck, U. (2008). World at risk: The new task of critical theory. Development and Society, 37(1),

1–21.

Benoit, W. L. (1995). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: a theory of image restoration strategies.

Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations

Review, 23(2), 177-186. doi: 10.1016/s0363-8111(97)90023-0

Benoit, W. L. (2013). Image repair theory and corporate reputation. In C. E. Carroll (Ed.), The

handbook of communication and corporate reputation (pp. 213-221). John Wiley &

Sons.

Benoit, W. L. (2014). Accounts, excuses, and apologies: image repair theory and research (2nd

ed.). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Bitzer, L. F. (1968). The rhetorical situation. Philosophy & Rhetoric, 1, 1– 14.

Black, E. (1965). Rhetorical criticism: A study in method. New York, NY: Macmillan (rpt.

Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978).

Bowen, S. A., & Zheng, Y. (2015). Auto recall crisis, framing, and ethical response: Toyota's

missteps. Public Relations Review, 41,40-49. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.10.017

Brief Introduction to CCTV. (2017). Retrieved from

http://www.cctv.cn/2017/11/17/ARTIt8ZGt9MNebBmr5DHAMcd171117.shtml

Brandes, U., & Erlebach, T. (Eds.). (2005). Network analysis: methodological foundation.

Springer.

Brass, D. J. (1995). A social network perspective on human resources management. Research in

Personnel and Human Resources Management, 13, 39-79.

Burke, K. (1969b). A rhetoric of motives. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Carley, K. M. (1993). Coding choices for textual analysis: A comparison of content analysis and

map analysis. In P. Marsden (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 75-126). Oxford:

Blackwell.

Carley, K. M. (1997). Network text analysis: The network positions of concepts. In C. W.

Roberts (Ed.), Text analysis for the social sciences: Methods for drawing statistical

inferences from texts and transcripts (pp. 79-100). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Castells, M. (1996). The rise of the network society (1st ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

China Consumers Association. (n.d.) Consumers International. Retrieved from

https://www.consumersinternational.org/members/members/china-consumers-

association-cca/

Choi, J., & Chung, W. (2013). Analysis of the interactive relationship between apology and

product involvement in crisis communication. Journal of Business and Technical

Communication, 27(1), 3-31. doi: 10.1177/1050651912458923

Claeys, A., Cauberghe, V., & Vyncke, P. (2010). Restoring reputations in times of crisis: An

experimental study of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory and the moderating

Coombs, W. T. (1995). Choosing the right words: the development of guidelines for the selection

of the "appropriate" crisis-response strategies. Management Communication Quarterly,

8(4), 447-476. doi: 10.1177/0893318995008004003

Coombs, W. T. (2004). Impacts of past crises on current crisis communications: Insights from

situational crisis communication theory. Journal of Business Communication, 41(3), 265-

289.

Coombs, W. T. (2007). On going crisis communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding

(2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Coombs, W. T. (2009). Conceptualizing crisis communication. In R. Health & H. O'Haire,

Handbook of risk and crisis communication (pp. 99-118). New York: Taylor & Francis.

Coombs, W. T. (2013). Situational theory of crisis: Situational crisis communication theory and

corporate reputation. In C. E. Carroll (Eds.). The handbook of communication and

corporate reputation (pp. 262-278). John Wiley & Sons.

Coombs, W. T. (2015). The value of communication during a crisis: Insights from strategic

communication research. Business Horizon, 58, 141-148.

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (1996). Communication and attributions in a crisis: An

experimental study in crisis communication. Journal of PublicRelations Research, 8,

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (2002). Helping crisis managers protect reputational assets:

Initial tests of the Situational Crisis Communication Theory. Management

Communication Quarterly, 16, 165– 186.

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (2014). How publics react to crisis communication

efforts. Journal of Communication Management, 18(1), 40-57.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.gsu.edu/10.1108/JCOM-03-2013-0015

Coombs, W. T., & Laufer, D. (2018). Global crisis management – current research and future

directions. Journal of International Management, 4(3), 199-203.

doi:10.1016/j.intman.2017.12.003

Cooren, F., Kuhn, T., Cornelissen, J. P., & Clark, T. (2011). Communication, organizing, and

organization: An overview and introduction to the special issue. Organization Studies, 32

(9), 1149-1170.

Danowski, J. A. (1982). A network-based content analysis methodology for computer-mediated

communication: An illustration with a computer bulletin board. In M. Burgoon (Ed.),

Communication yearbook 6 (pp. 904-925). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Danowski, J. A. (2013). WORDij version 3.0: Semantic network analysis software. Chicago, IL:

University of Illinois at Chicago.

Delanty, G. (2006). The cosmopolitan imagination: Critical cosmopolitanism and social theory.

Diers-Lawson, A. (2017). A state of emergency in crisis communication an intercultural crisis

communication research agenda. Journal of Intercultural Communication

Research, 46(1), 1-54. doi:10.1080/17475759.2016.1262891

Ding, H. (2014). Rhetoric of a global epidemic: transcultural communication about SARS.

Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.

Ding, H., & Savage, G. (2013). New directions in intercultural professional communication.

Technical Communication Quarterly, 22, 1-9.

Drieger, P. (2013). Semantic network analysis as a method for visual text analytics. Social and

Behavioral Sciences, 79, 4-17. Doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.05.053

Eddington, S. M. (2018). The communicative constitution of hate organization online: A

semantic network analysis of “Make America Great Again.” Social Media + Society,

4(3), 1-12.

Etter, M., & Vestergaard, A. (2015). Facebook and the public framing of a corporate crisis.

Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 20(2), 163-177. doi: 10.1108/ccij-

10-2013-0082

Evans, V. (2005). Evolution of semantics. In K. Brown (Ed.), Elsevier encyclopedia of language

and linguistics (pp. 345-352). Burlington, MA: Elsevier.

Falkheimer, J., & Heide, M. (2015). Strategic communication in participatory culture: from one-

Holtzhausen & A. Zerfass (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of strategic communication

(pp. 337-349). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

Featherstone, M. (Ed.). (1990). Global culture. London: Sage.

Firth, J. R. (1957). Papers in linguistics (1934-1951). London: Oxford University Press.

Four recalls in a year and half of consumers abandoned Johnson & Johnson. (2010). Retrieved

from finance.ifeng.com/news/bgt/20100513/2181306.shtml

Freytag, G. (1900). Technique of the drama: An exposition of dramatic composition and art (E.

J. MacEwan, Trans.) (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company. (Original

work Die Technik des Dramas published 1893).

Frandsen, F., & Johansen, W. (2010). Apologizing in a globalizing world: Crisis communication

and apologetic ethics. Corporate Communications, 15(4), 350-364.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.gsu.edu/10.1108/13563281011085475

Frandsen, F., & Johansen, W. (2018). Voices in conflict? The crisis communication of meta-

organizations. Management Communication Quarterly, 32(1), 90-120.

doi:10.1177/0893318917705734

Giddens, A. (1976). New rules of sociological method. London: Hutchinson.

Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration.

Cambridge: Polity.

Giddens, A. (2000). Runaway world: How globalization is reshaping our lives. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Giplin, D., & Murphy, P. (2006). Reframing crisis management through complexity. In C.H.

Botan & V. Hazelton (Eds.), Public relations theory Ⅱ (pp. 375-392). Malden, MA:

Lawrence Erlbaum.

Grabill, J. T. (2009). Knowledge work and technical communication as public rhetoric. Paper

presented at the Conference of the Association of Teachers of Technical Writing, San

Francisco, CA.

Graham, M. W., Avery, E., & Park, S. (2015). The role of social media in local government

crisis communications. Public Relations Review, 41, 386-394.

Grunig, J. E. (1997). Public relations management in government and business. In J. L. Garnett

& A. Kouzmin (Eds.), Handbook of administrative communication (pp. 241-283). New

York, NY: Marcel Dekker.

Gu, B. (2009). From oracle bones to computers. West Lafayette, Ind.: Parlor Press.

Guo, L., & Vargo, C. (2015). The power of message networks: A big-data analysis of the

network agenda setting model and issue ownership. Mass Communication and Society,

18(5), 557-576.

Ha, J. H., & Boynton, L. (2014). Has crisis communication been studied using an

interdisciplinary research approach? A 20-year content analysis of communication

Ha, J. H., & Riffe, D. (2015). Crisis-related research in communication and business journals:

An interdisciplinary review from 1992 to 2011. Public Relations Review, 41, 569-578.

Haigh, M. M., & Brubaker, P. (2010). Examining how image restoration strategy impacts

perceptions of corporate social responsibility, organization-public relationships, and

source credibility. Corporate Communications, 15(4), 453-468.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.gsu.edu/10.1108/13563281011085538

Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., van Ruler, B., Verčič, D., Sriramesh, K. (2007). Defining

strategic communication. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 1 (1), 3-35.

Han, S., Kim, K. J., &Kim, J. H. (2017). Understanding nomophobia: Structural equation

modeling and semantic network analysis of smartphone separation anxiety.

Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 20 (7), 419-427.

Heath, R. L. (1997). Strategic issues management: Organizations and public policy challenges.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Heath, R. L. (1998). New communication technologies: An issues management point of view.

Public Relations Review, 24(3), 273-288. doi: 10.1016/s0363-8111(99)80140-4

Heath, R. L. & D. P. Millar. (2004). A rhetorical approach to crisis communication:

Management, communication processes, and strategic responses. In R. L. Heath & D. P.

Millar (Eds.), Responding to crisis: A rhetorical approach to crisis communication.

Hearit, K. M., & Courtright, J. L. (2004). A symbolic approach to crisis management: Sear’s

defense of its auto repair policies. In R. L. Heath & D. P. Millar (Eds.), Responding to

crisis: A rhetorical approach to crisis communication. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Hearit, K. M. (2006). Crisis management by apology: Corporate response to allegations of

wrongdoing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Holtzhausen, D., & Zerfass, A. (2015). Strategic Communication: opportunities and challenges

of the research area. In D. Holtzhausen & A. Zerfass (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of

strategic communication (pp. 337-349). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

Inglis, D. (2012). An invitation to social theory. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

Jiao, L. (2018). Apple has earned nearly 90% of profits in smartphone market. China Daily.

Retrieved from http://tech.chinadaily.com.cn/2018-03/02/content_35769285.htm

Johansen, W., & Frandsen, F. (2005). Crisis communication and the rhetorical arena - A multi-

vocal approach. In Conference on Corporate Communication - Wroxton Corporate

Communication Institute - Fairleigh Dickinson University.

Johansen B. F., Johansen, W., & Weckesser, N. M. (2016). Emotional stakeholders as “crisis communicators” in social media: The case of the Telenor customer complaints crisis.

Kang, G. L., Ewing-Nelson, S. R., Mackey, L., Schlitt, J. T., Marathe, A., Abbas, K. M., &

Swarup, S. (2017). Semantic network analysis of vaccine sentiment in online social

media. Vaccine, 35 (29), 3621-3638.

Kaufer, D. S., & Carley, K. M. (1993). Communication at a distance: The effect of print on

socio-cultural organization and change. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kim, J. H. (2012). A hyperlink and semantic network analysis of the triple helix (University-

Government-Industry): The interorganizational communication structure of

nanotechnology. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17 (2), 152-170.

Kleinnijenhuis, J., De Ridder, J., Rietberg, E. M. (1997). Reasoning in economic discourse: An

application of the network approach to the Dutch press. In C. W. Roberts (Ed.), Text

analysis for the social sciences: Methods for drawing statistical inferences from texts and transcripts (pp. 191-207). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Krippendorff, K. (2013). Content analysis (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE.

Liu, B. F., Austin, L., & Jin, Y. (2011). How publics respond to crisis communication strategies:

The interplay of information form and source. Public Relations Review, 37, 345-353.

Liu, P., Lu, Y., & Qiu, R. (2014). 2013 China social media public opinion development report.

Retrieved from http://yuqing.people.com.cn/n/2014/0627/c364391-25210278.html

Maiorescu, R. D. (2016). Crisis management at General Motors and Toyota: An analysis of

gender-specific communication and media coverage. Public Relations Review, 42, 556-

563.

Marván, M. L., Chrisler, J. C., Gorman, J. A., & Barney, A. (2017). The meaning of menarche:

A cross-cultural semantic network analysis. Health Care for Women International, 38

(9), 971-982.

Mei, J. S. A., Bansal, N., & Pang, A. (2010). New media: A new medium in escalating

crises? Corporate Communications, 15(2), 143-155.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.gsu.edu/10.1108/13563281011037919

Metts, S., & Cupach, W. R. (1989). Situational influence on the use of remedial strategies in

embarrassing predicaments. Communication Monographs,56, 151– 162.

Meadows, C., & Meadows, I. W. (2014). Research in Brief—The history of academic research in

public relations: Tracking research trends over nearly four decades. Public Relations

Review, 40(5), 871-873. doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.06.005

Men. J. R., & Tsai, W. H. S. (2013). Beyond liking or following: understanding public

engagement on social networking sites in China. Public Relations Review. 39 (1), 13-22.

Monge, P. R., & Eisenberg, E. M. (1987). Emergent communication networks. In F. M. Jablin,

L. L. Putnam, K. H. Roberts, & L. W. Porter (Eds.). Handbook of organizational

communication: An interdisciplinary perspective (pp. 304-342). Newbury Park, CA:

Monge, P. R., & Contractor, N. S. (2003). Theories of communication networks. NY: New York.

Oxford University Press.

Mulgan, G. (1997). Connexity, how to live in a connected world. Boston, MA: Harvard Business

School Press.

Ngai, C., & Jin, Y. (2016). The effectiveness of crisis communication strategies on Sina Weibo

in relation to Chinese publics’ acceptance of these strategies. Journal of Business and

Technical Communication, 30(4), 451-494. doi: 10.1177/1050651916651907

No more toxic tub: Getting contaminants out of children’s bath & personal care products [PDF

file]. (2009). Retrieved from https://static.ewg.org/reports/2009/Campaign-for-Safe-

Cosmetics-Report-No-More-Toxic-Tub.pdf?_ga=2.225821214.56804435.1552422852-

1946585763.1552422852

O’Leary. N. (2007). CCTV: One network, 1.2 billion viewers. Ad Week. Retrieved from

https://www.adweek.com/brand-marketing/cctv-one-network-12-billion-viewers-87831/

Pace, K. M., Fediuk, T. A., & Botero, I. C. (2010). The acceptance of responsibility and

expressions of regret in organizational apologies after a transgression. Corporate

Communications, 15(4), 410-427.

Palmer, Z. B. (2013). Cosmopolitanism: Extending our theoretical framework for transcultural

technical communication research and teaching. Journal of Technical Writing

& Communication. 43(4), 381-401.

Palmlund, I. (1992). Social drama and risk evaluation. In S. Krimsky, & D. Golding (Eds.),

Social theories of risk (pp. 197–212). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Palmlund, I. (2010). Risk and social dramaturgy. In R. L. Heath, & H. D. O’Hair (Eds.),

Handbook of risk and crisis communication (pp. 192–204). New York, NY: Routledge.

Pang, A., Hassan, N. B. A., & Chong, A. C. Y. (2014). Negotiating crisis in the social media

environment. Corporate Communications, 19 (1), 96-118.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.gsu.edu/10.1108/CCIJ-09-2012-0064

Perkmann, M. (1999). The two network societies. Economy and Society, 28(4), 615-628.

Popping, R., & Robert, C. W. (1997). Network approaches in text analysis. In R. Klar & O.

Opitz (Eds.) Classification and knowledge organization (pp. 381-389). Heidelberg:

Springer.

Roberts, C. W. (Ed.). (1997). Text analysis for the social sciences: Methods for drawing

statistical inferences from texts and transcripts. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Roberts, C. W. (1997). Semantic text analysis: On the structure of linguistic ambiguity in

ordinary discourse. In C.W. Roberts (Ed.), Text analysis for the social sciences: Methods

for drawing statistical inferences from texts and transcripts (pp. 55-77). Mahwah, NJ:

Rogers, E. M., & Kincaid, D. L. (1981). Communication networks: Toward a new paradigm for

research. New York: Free Press.

Romenti, S., Murtarelli, G., & Valentini, C. (2014). Organisations' conversations in social media:

Applying dialogue strategies in times of crises. Corporate Communications, 19(1), 10-33.

doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.gsu.edu/10.1108/CCIJ-05-2012-0041

Potts, L. (2014). Social media in disaster response: How experience architects can build for

participation. New York City, NY: Routledge.

de Saussure, F. (2011). Course in general linguistics. New York: Columbia University Press.

Savaiano, S. & Schrodt, P. A. (1997). Environmental change and conflict: Analyzing the

Ethiopian famine of 1984-85. In: C. W. Roberts (ed.), Text Analysis for the Social

Sciences: Methods for drawing statistical inferences from texts and transcripts (pp. 147–

158). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Stalder, F. (2006). Manuel Castells: The theory of the network society. Malden, MA: Polity.

Sung, M., & Hwang, J. (2014). Who drives a crisis? The diffusion of an issue through social

networks. Computers in Human Behavior, 36, 246-257. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.03.063

Tichy, N., Tushman, M., & Fombrun, C. (1979). Social network analysis for organizations.

Academy of Management Review, 4, 507-519.

Torp, S. M. (2009). Integrated communications: From one look to normative consistency.

Torp, S. M. (2015). The strategic turn in communication science: on the history and role of

strategy in communication science from ancient Greece until the present day. In D.

Holtzhausen & A. Zerfass (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of strategic communication

(pp. 337-349). New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

van der Meer, T., & Verhoeven, P. (2013). Public framing organizational crisis situations: Social

media versus news media. Public Relations Review, 39(3), 229-231. doi: