PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE

Chapter 13 PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE

PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB VERB VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT SUBJECT

13.1 13.1 13.1

13.1 A VERB EXPRESSES A VERB EXPRESSES A VERB EXPRESSES A VERB EXPRESSES EXISTENCE ("EXISTENCE ("EXISTENCE ("isEXISTENCE ("isisis"), "), "), "), ACTION ACTION ACTION ("ACTION ("("("runrunrunrunssss"), OR OCCURANCE (""), OR OCCURANCE (""), OR OCCURANCE (""), OR OCCURANCE ("happenshappenshappenshappens"). "). "). When the ").

subject¹¹¹¹ is a pronoun, it is attached as a suffix to the verb. The pronoun subject of the Egyptian verb is attached to the verb in a similar manner to the possessive pronoun's attachment to its noun ('''''''' 11, 12).

In Egyptian, there was only one tense to express the present ("now") and future ("something that is going to occur"), and therefore only context determines whether the verb should be translated as present or future.

This form of the Egyptian present/future verb tense with a suffix pronoun appended is called "the the the the

ssssḏḏḏḏm m m m⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

verb formverb form".verb formverb form ²²²²

13.2 13.2 13.2

13.2 PRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSEPRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH SUFFIX PR VERB WITH SUFFIX PR VERB WITH SUFFIX PR VERB WITH SUFFIX PRONOUN SUBJECTONOUN SUBJECTONOUN SUBJECTONOUN SUBJECT SINGULARSINGULARSINGULARSINGULAR

MASCULINE MASCULINE MASCULINE

MASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

I go, I will go 1st I go, I will go

ššššm m m m⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì

[shem-ē]

ššššm m m m⋅⋅⋅⋅ìììì

you see, you will see 2nd you see, will see

m33 m33

m33 m33⋅⋅⋅⋅kkkk

[mä-ä-eck]

m33 m33 m33 m33⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯ

[mä-ä-etch]

he says, he will say 3rd she says, she she says, she she says, she she says, she will saywill saywill say will say

ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅ffff

[djed-ef]

ḏḏḏḏdddd⋅⋅⋅⋅ssss

[djed-ess]

PLURALPLURALPLURALPLURAL MASCULINE

MASCULINE MASCULINE

MASCULINE PERSON PERSON PERSON PERSON FEMININEFEMININEFEMININEFEMININE

we give, we will give 1st we give, we will give

rd rd

rd rdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn

[red-ē-en]

rd rd rd rdìììì⋅⋅⋅⋅nnnn

you take, you will take 2nd you take, you will take

ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn

[ētch-tchen]

ììììtttt⋅⋅⋅⋅ṯṯṯṯnnnn

they write, they will write 3rd they write, they will write

ssssšššš ⋅⋅⋅⋅ sn sn sn sn

[sesh-sen]

ssssšššš ⋅⋅⋅⋅ sn sn sn sn

1 The subject is the word or phrase the verb describes.

2 Pronounced "sedj-em-ef".

61 13.3 COMMENTARY

13.3 COMMENTARY 13.3 COMMENTARY 13.3 COMMENTARY A:

A: The same suffix pronouns are used for both possessive pronouns and subject pronouns. The singular forms are: , "I" (m.,f.); , "you" (m.); , "you" (f.); ,, "he"; and , "she". The masculine and the feminine plural subject pronouns for both are: "we"; , "you"; and , "their".

B BB

B:::: Whether the verb should be translated in the present or future tense is determined by context.

C C C

C:::: The verb ,

rd rd rd rdìììì

, "give", may be written with , X8, alone. In such cases where the ,

rrrr

, is omitted, it is customary to write the transliteration as

(r)d (r)d (r)d (r)dìììì

, indicating to the reader that the ,

rrrr

, was deliberately omitted from the text.

D D D

D:::: The verb "give" had two forms which were used interchangeably: and ,

rd rd rd rdìììì

, as well as and ,

ddddìììì .

13.4 13.4 13.4

13.4 THE EGYPTIAN CONCEPTTHE EGYPTIAN CONCEPTTHE EGYPTIAN CONCEPTTHE EGYPTIAN CONCEPT OF OF OF OF

maat maat maat maat

The goddess Maat embodied the attributes implied in the word, ,

m3't m3't m3't m3't

, which meant "truth",

"rightful order", "an ordered way of life", "justice", "righteousness", and "proper conduct". In combination together, they composed the ethical code of the gods. The pharaoh was entrusted with maat by the gods and was charged with insuring that Egypt and his kingship conducted their affairs according to these precepts embodied in the very meaning of her name. The first references of this concept to appear in connection with the pharaoh began in the 3rd Dynasty (2686-2613). The ruler was now accepted as Re incarnate, ruling the land through the precepts of maat. As the one entrusted with maat by the gods, when he spoke, his word was law. The orderliness of the state, of nature, of the sun, moon, and stars, everything that was good was a result of maat. If something lacked maat, it was bad or evil. Maat was often characterized by a state of balance and fullness. Thus, the concept of maat encompassed every facet of life in ancient Egypt. Maat might be called "a code of ethics" and served Egypt well during the OK. Later generations would look back to this time as a Golden Age when truth, justice, and morality flourished.

As the OK ended and the turmoil of the FIP seized the land, the plaintive cry for a return to the old values was expressed. As a result of this turbulence, maat was extended to the common people during the FIP (2181-2040). Whereas in the OK maat was primarily between the pharaoh and the gods, during the FIP, when anarchy was rampant and there was no central authority to stabilize society, the individual increasingly assumed more responsibility for maat. Following the chaos of the FIP, in the MK (2133-1786) the sense of maat once again changed to include the proper conduct by which those in power should rule the people.

Administrators were implored not only to govern by applying maat to their actions but the ruler was now also

seen as the Good Shepherd responsible for his people.³³³³ This daily ritual of supplication to the goddess was to assure that she would be pleased and confer her benefits upon the gods who in turn would pass them onto Egypt and its inhabitants.

In TTTTHE HE HE HE BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDDEADEADEADEAD,,,,⁴⁴⁴⁴ the central theme was the weighing of the deceased's heart against an ostrich feather, the symbol for maat. The Egyptians believed that a person's heart was where the mind and will resided. In the weighing of this seat of character against the feather of truth, if the heart was found wanting, this would prevent the individual from joining the gods in perpetual afterlife. In fact, the composite monster, Ammit, attended the ceremony for the sole purpose of devouring the deceased's heart should it be found to weigh more than the feather, presumably because it was laden with sin.

Fig. 13.4-1 shows the WWWWEIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE HHHHEART EART EART EART CCCCEREMONYEREMONYEREMONYEREMONY of Hunefer, Royal Scribe and Steward of Menmaatre Seti (19-2, 1318-1304). At the left Hunefer is seen being led by Anubis to the weighing ceremony. Anubis then conducts the actual weighing while the monster, Ammit, sits nearby ready to devour Hunefer's heart should it be found to be sinful. The god Thoth records the results of the judgment. Hunefer is then brought by Horus before Osiris who is seated on a throne, attended by Isis and Nephthys. The four sons of Horus stand on a lotus plant before Osiris and welcome Hunefer to everlasting life in the company of Osiris.

3 In a MK text, known as "The Eloquent Peasant", an evil overseer, Nemtynakht, tricks a peasant, Khun-anup, into causing damage to his master's crops. Then the overseer beats up the peasant and seizes his donkey.

Khun-anup pleads his case before the local magistrate, who is moved by this unlettered but articulate man. He reports it to the pharaoh who orders the magistrate not to grant the peasant justice just yet and to require him to put his pleas in writing only. After nine eloquent petitions, when Khun-anup is ready to give up trying, does justice prevail: the donkey is returned; Nemtynakht is stripped of his land and job which are given to Khun-anup in recompense (the overseer is now as poor as the peasant once was); and the principles of maat are served.

4 This name is used by modern scholars when referring to the collection of ancient Egyptian religious and magical texts which accompanied the deceased, and would ensure the deceased's living forever in the company of the gods.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 13.413.4----1.13.413.41.1.1. W W W WEIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE EIGHING OF THE HEART CEREMONYHEART CEREMONYHEART CEREMONYHEART CEREMONY,,,, THE THE THE THE BBBBOOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE OOK OF THE DDDEADDEADEADEAD OF HUNEFER OF HUNEFER OF HUNEFER OF HUNEFER,,,, THE BRITISH M THE BRITISH M THE BRITISH M THE BRITISH MUSEUMUSEUMUSEUMUSEUM....

63 13.5 DESCRIPTION OF

13.5 DESCRIPTION OF 13.5 DESCRIPTION OF

13.5 DESCRIPTION OF SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGNS ENCOUNTERED SIGN T

SIGN T SIGN T

SIGN TRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATIONRANSLITERATION DESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTIONDESCRIPTION A24:

A24:

A24: MAN STRIKING WITH STMAN STRIKING WITH STMAN STRIKING WITH STMAN STRIKING WITH STICKICKICKICK.... Det. in "strike", strong", "take away", "plunder",

"teach".

D37:

dì dì dì dì

[dē], FOFOFOFOREARMREARMREARMREARM D36D36D36 D36WITH HAND HOLDINGWITH HAND HOLDINGWITH HAND HOLDINGWITH HAND HOLDING X8X8X8X8. . . . Sometimes employed as a

ìmì ìmì ìmì

ìmì

[ēmē] phon. [d], [mē], or [m].

D54:

D54: LEGS WALKINGLEGS WALKINGLEGS WALKINGLEGS WALKING.... Logo. "come". Det. in "go", "hasten", "stop", "linger".

N40:

šššš

^[sh] COMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OFCOMBINATION OF N37N37N37N37 AND AND AND AND D54D54D54.... D54 U2:

U2:

m3 m3 m3 m3

[mä] SICKLESICKLESICKLESICKLE.... Det. in "reap", "crookedness".

V15:

ììììṯṯṯṯ

^[ētch] COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF COMBINATION OF V13V13 V13V13 AND AND AND AND D54D54 .... D54D54 X8:X8:

X8:X8:

(r)dì (r)dì (r)dì (r)dì

[redē], CONICAL LOAFCONICAL LOAFCONICAL LOAFCONICAL LOAF???? Logo. "give".

dì dì dì dì

[dē]

Y3:Y3:

sš sš sš sš

[sesh] SCRIBESCRIBESCRIBESCRIBE''''S OUTFITS OUTFITS OUTFITS OUTFIT,,,, CONSISTING OF PALET CONSISTING OF PALET CONSISTING OF PALET CONSISTING OF PALETTETETETE,,,, BAG EITHER FOR POWD BAG EITHER FOR POWD BAG EITHER FOR POWD BAG EITHER FOR POWDERED ERED ERED ERED PIGMENTSPIGMENTSPIGMENTSPIGMENTS OROROROR WATERWATERWATERWATER,,,, AND REED HOLDER AND REED HOLDER AND REED HOLDER AND REED HOLDER. . . . Logo. "scribe", "writings", and related words.

Det. in "scribe", "writings", "write", "smooth", "red".

64 13.6 EXERCISES

13.6 EXERCISES 13.6 EXERCISES 13.6 EXERCISES

TRANSLITERATE AND TR TRANSLITERATE AND TR TRANSLITERATE AND TR

TRANSLITERATE AND TRANSLATEANSLATEANSLATEANSLATE::::

PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE VERB W /FUTURE TENSE VERB W /FUTURE TENSE VERB WITH NOUN SUBJECT /FUTURE TENSE VERB W ITH NOUN SUBJECT ITH NOUN SUBJECT ITH NOUN SUBJECT

14.1 TTTTWHILE IN AN ENGLISH WHILE IN AN ENGLISH WHILE IN AN ENGLISH WHILE IN AN ENGLISH SENTENCE, THE TYPICASENTENCE, THE TYPICASENTENCE, THE TYPICAL WORD ORDER IS SUBJSENTENCE, THE TYPICAL WORD ORDER IS SUBJL WORD ORDER IS SUBJECT, VERB, IN L WORD ORDER IS SUBJECT, VERB, IN ECT, VERB, IN ECT, VERB, IN

BE A PRONOUN, NOUN, OR OR OR NOUN PHRASEOR NOUN PHRASENOUN PHRASE.... Thus, in Egyptian, just as the pronoun subject follows NOUN PHRASE the verb, so too does a noun subject.

14.2 14.2 14.2

14.2 PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE PRESENT/FUTURE TENSE TENSE TENSE TENSE VERB WITH NOUN SUBJEVERB WITH NOUN SUBJEVERB WITH NOUN SUBJEVERB WITH NOUN SUBJECTCTCTCT

the official travels/will travel downstream, i.e. northwards

ḫḫḫḫd sr d sr d sr d sr

[khed sâr]

the officials travel/will travel northward

ḫḫḫḫd sr(w) d sr(w) d sr(w) d sr(w)

[khed sâr-ōō]

A: Note that the root letters of the verb do not change whether the noun subject is singular or plural.

B BB

B:::: As mentioned in §13.1, whether the verb should be translated as a present or future tense is dependent entirely on the context.

C C C

C:::: As discussed in §11.3, when the ,

ww w w

, is omitted, as in ,

b3k(w)t b3k(w)t b3k(w)t b3k(w)t

, it should be enclosed in brackets to indicate that fact to the reader. It is customary in translations to use the following:

< > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included

< > to enclose a character which was omitted but should have been included ( ) to enclose a character usually omitte

( ) to enclose a character usually omitte ( ) to enclose a character usually omitte

( ) to enclose a character usually omitted but understood to belong in the wordd but understood to belong in the wordd but understood to belong in the wordd but understood to belong in the word

[ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator [ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator [ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator [ ] to enclose a portion of a text (one or more letters) that is missing and has been restored by the translator sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.

sic. or ( ! ) to indicate a scribal error.

14.4 14.4 14.4

14.4 THE SCRIBETHE SCRIBETHE SCRIBE THE SCRIBE

In contrast to Mesopotamia where the clay tablet was the medium of choice, papyrus¹¹¹¹ was the primary material upon which the Egyptians wrote. The papyrus plant grew throughout the Nile Valley in ancient times but today exists in Egypt in limited areas only. The plant was also extensively used throughout Egyptian history for the construction of reed shelters, as in O4, , and for the construction of boats, as in P1, . While we do not have any ancient Egyptian description of papyrus making, what we do know of the process is supplied to us largely in a description written by the Roman naturalist, Pliny the Elder, 23-79 CE.

To make paper from papyrus, it was first cut into strips, peeled, and then slit into thin slices which were placed flat in a vertical direction. Another layer was placed horizontally on top of the first layer and then the two were pressed together. The two layers stuck together as a result of the fibers interlocking, with the natural juices of the plant also acting as a natural adhesive. The horizontal layer is called the "recto"

and the under surface is called the "verso". Papyrus sheets were made ≅ 43 cms. (17 inches) in width by 48 cms. (19 inches) in height. Individual panels were pressed together at their edges to form a document of great length.²²²²

Two rolls of blank papyrus were found in the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890) tomb of Den (1-5). An uninscribed roll was also discovered in the 1st Dynasty tomb of Hemaka in Sakkara, attesting to its usage 5,000 years ago. The earliest written samples discovered to date are temple accounts from the 5th Dynasty (2494-2345) found at Abusir. On the walls of the 6th Dynasty (2345-2181) tomb of Harkhuf is recorded his written message sent to the ruler Pepi II (6-5) as well as the pharaoh's reply regarding a pygmy which Harkhuf had obtained and was bringing to the king.

Written records also survive in the form of ostraca, which in ancient Egypt were usually pieces or flakes of limestone upon which short messages or practice exercises were written.

If manual labor was the driving force of ancient Egypt, then the scribe was the one who wrote the orders that managed that force and who recorded the results. The scribes were knowledgeable not only in reading and writing but in mathematics as well. These skills enabled them to occupy a unique place in Egyptian society, which was, like most ancient societies, predominantly illiterate. Many of their letters have survived and give the modern Egyptologist an insight into all facets of life in ancient Egypt. Scribal training was a prerequisite for the priesthood, for administrative positions, for the practice of medicine, and for the profession which we call civil engineering.

1 From the Greek papyros and from which the English word "paper" is derived. One possibility is that the Greeks derived their word from the Egyptian p3 pr-'3, , "that of the great house", as paper making may have been a royal prerogative and monopoly.

2 The so-called "Harris Papyrus" in the British Museum is 41 meters (1342 feet) long.

67 FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 14.414.414.414.4----1111 SEATED SCRIBE DATIN SEATED SCRIBE DATIN SEATED SCRIBE DATIN SEATED SCRIBE DATING FROM DYNASTY G FROM DYNASTY G FROM DYNASTY G FROM DYNASTY 5555

(2484 (2484 (2484

(2484----2345).2345).2345). 2345).

The symbol for the scribe,

sš sš sš sš

, Y3, , consists of his palette,³³³³ a bag for pigments or water jar, and a brush holder. Usually the scribe wrote on papyrus with brush and two inks: red⁴⁴⁴⁴ for section headings and deficits in accounts, and black for the body of the work. His writing instrument was stored in a slot on a palette (usually made of wood) which also contained holes for the storage of dried cakes of pigment used for the ink. The black ink was carbon based and the red was finely ground red ocher. The pigments were mixed with a gum so that they could dry into small cakes. These were used in a manner similar to the watercolor paints of today. The brushes were reeds, cut at an angle, with the end chewed by the scribe to form a point with multiple fiber strands.

3 The Egyptians believed that writing was devised by the god Thoth. As a result, he was worshipped by the scribes as their divine patron and invocations to him were often written on their palettes.

4 Our word "rubric" (red) refers to this practice. First started by the Egyptians, it is still in use today.

FFFFIGIGIGIG.... 14.414.4----222214.414.4 SCRIBAL PALETTES SCRIBAL PALETTES SCRIBAL PALETTES SCRIBAL PALETTES.... NOTE INKWELLS NOTE INKWELLS NOTE INKWELLS NOTE INKWELLS....

The scribe held his hand away from the papyrus and painted the signs either in vertical columns or horizontal rows. When writing in a columnar manner, the scribe often started in the upper right-hand corner of the papyrus, working his way down the column until he reached the bottom of the document.

After completing the first section, the scribe then rolled up the papyrus in his right hand, unrolled a blank area from his left hand, and began to write again at the top of the next column, continuing in this manner until the document was complete. The width of each section of horizontal rows would vary, depending both on the amount of the material to be written and the aesthetic factors. Hieratic writing, unlike hieroglyphic writing, always proceeded from right to left, dropping to the next row as each row was completed.

One reference to the advantages of being a scribe is found in the so-called SSSSATIRE OF THE ATIRE OF THE ATIRE OF THE ATIRE OF THE TTTTRADESRADESRADESRADES.⁵⁵⁵⁵ In this text, a father who is accompanying his young son to a scribal school, contrasts the benefits of being a scribe compared to other occupations. The papyrus begins:

In document How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphics (Page 69-77)