Preliminaries
The infinitive, a nonfinite form of the verb (see Unit 5 Prelim.), is a verbal noun. As a verb form it has tense (or aspect) and voice and can govern noun complements and adverbial modifiers. As a noun, it can serve as subject, object, and the like. In English the infinitive (formed with to plus the verb) shares the job of verbal noun with the gerund (formed from the present stem of a verb plus -ing). In Greek there is only the infinitive to fulfill the verbal noun function.
Ex. To see is to believe.
Seeing is believing.
Learning Greek is not difficult.
In addition to functioning as a noun in these simple uses, the infinitive is used (1) as a complement to many verbs; (2) in dependent phrases that are transformations of simple sentences embedded in a more complex sentence; (3) in phrases expressing other meanings, such as purpose or result.
You like to swim. (complementary infinitive) They are willing to lead. (complementary infinitive) Wilson is president. (simple sentence, finite verb) They want Wilson to be president. (embedded sentence, infinitive) They chose Wilson to be president. (embedded sentence, infinitive) They believe Wilson to be president. (embedded sentence, infinitive)
I went there to see the statue. (expressing purpose) He left enough space in his luggage
so as to have room for gifts. (expressing result)
1. Present Active Infinitive. The present active infinitive of an ω-verb is formed by adding -ειν to the present stem. (-ειν is a contraction of the theme vowel ε and the infinitival ending -εν.)
ἄγω
→
ἄγειν, to lead; πείθω→
πείθειν, to persuadeAccentuation. The present infinitive of ω-verbs is always accented on the final syl-lable of the stem. The nonfinite forms of the verb do not have recessive accentuation (Unit 5.6). Thus the accentuation of each type of infinitive and participle must be learned separately.
2. Some Uses of the Greek Infinitive.
a. Complementary infinitive. The complementary infinitive is used to complete the meaning of a variety of verbs, such as those expressing will or desire, request, per-mission, choice, command, and the like. In the simplest examples the verb has no other complement:
ἐθέλουσι μένειν. They are willing to stay.
οὐκ ἐθέλετε φέρειν τὸν πόνον. You are not willing to endure the toil.
Some verbs (e.g., those of asking, commanding, persuading) take an accusative object (of the person who is to do the action of the infinitive) plus the complementary infinitive:
τοὺς συμμάχους μένειν πείθομεν. We are urging the allies to remain.
κελεύω τὴν στρατιὰν ἐλαύνειν. I am ordering the army to march.
b. Infinitive with impersonal expressions. The infinitive, as a verbal noun, often serves as the subject of a sentence containing an impersonal expression.
One common form of impersonal expression consists of a predicate adjective with the copula is, which in Greek is sometimes expressed and sometimes omitted. The infinitive as noun is considered neuter singular: thus the predicate adjective is neuter singular nominative to agree with the subject infinitive. In the equivalent English idiom, the subject function of the infinitive is somewhat concealed by the use of the expletive it (a filler or apparent subject):
It is just to take the horses. (expletive–copula–pred. adj.–inf. phrase) To take the horses is just. (inf. phrase–copula–pred. adj.)
Taking the horses is just. (gerund phrase–copula–pred. adj.)
Present Infinitive; Two-Ending Adjectives 79
δίκαιον λαμβάνειν τοὺς ἵππους. (pred. adj.–inf.–direct obj. of inf.) ἄρχειν χαλεπόν. To lead is difficult.
(It is difficult to lead.)
Several impersonal verbs also have the infinitive as subject. Impersonal verbs are verbs normally used only in the third person singular with an unspecifiable subject it (e.g., it is raining) or with an expletive it and an infinitive following the verb as the true subject:
δεῖ πέμπειν δῶρα. To send gifts is necessary.
(It is necessary to send gifts.)
οὐ πρέπει δῶρα λαμβάνειν. To take bribes is not seemly.
(It is not seemly to take gifts [bribes].)
What is expressed in Greek idiom by an impersonal verb and infinitive is often idi-omatically conveyed in English by a personal construction with a modal verb using must, should, or ought. For example, δεῖ πέμπειν δῶρα may also be translated One must (should, ought to) send gifts.
c. Articular infinitive. The substantival force and case usage of an infinitive used as a noun are sometimes marked more strongly by the use of the neuter singular definite article to introduce the infinitive phrase. The article must be used when the infinitive functions as a substantive in the genitive or dative or as the object of a preposition.
In the nominative and many uses of the accusative, either the articular infinitive or the bare infinitive (as exemplified in §§2a and 2b above) is allowed.
nom. τὸ ἄρχειν πόνον φέρει. To rule brings toil.
gen. ἐκ τοῦ φεύγειν as a result of fleeing dat. πρὸς τῷ δῶρα λαμβάνειν in addition to taking bribes acc. πρὸς τὸ ἐλαύνειν τὰς ἵππους with regard to driving the mares 3. Negation. The negative adverb μή is used to negate an infinitive in any of the above uses.
πρέπει δῶρα μὴ λαμβάνειν. It is fitting not to take bribes.
4. Subject of the Infinitive. When the subject of the action denoted by the infinitive is ex pressed in Greek, it is normally in the accusative case, unless it is the same person or thing as the subject of the finite verb. (There are further exceptions to be learned later.)
οὐ δίκαιον τοὺς πολίτας λείπειν τὰ παιδία.
It is not right for the citizens to leave the children.
(It is not right that the citizens leave the children.) δεῖ τοὺς ἀνθρώπους πόνους φέρειν.
It is necessary for men to endure toil.
Or (personal form) Men must endure toil.
ἐκ τοῦ τὸν κακὸν ναύτην ἄρχειν
as a result of the bad sailor’s being leader
(as a result of the fact that the bad sailor is leader)
Note that in English the subject of an infinitive is often expressed in a prepositional phrase with for or as the possessive with a gerund, or that English idiom may prefer a personal construction (like men must). In other instances the infinitive phrase of Greek may be equivalent to a that-clause in English with subject and finite verb.
5. Dative of Reference. The person to whom a statement is limited or in whose opin-ion a statement is true is expressed in the dative case. Such a dative of reference is often used in sentences with an infinitive phrase as subject.
τῷ σοφῷ ὁ βίος οὐ χαλεπός.
For a wise man life is not difficult.
οὐ καλὸν τῷ ἀγαθῷ πολίτῃ φεύγειν.
Being in exile is not a fine thing for the good citizen.
(Compare the slightly different emphasis of οὐ καλὸν τὸ τὸν ἀγαθὸν πολίτην φεύγειν.
It is not a fine thing that a good citizen be in exile.)
6. Vowel-Declension Adjectives with Two Endings. Some vowel-declension adjec-tives (usually ones formed by compounding two roots, or prefix and root) have no separate feminine endings, the masculine endings serving as endings for a common, non-neuter gender. Thus in ἄδικος πολίτης the adjective is masculine, but in ἄδικος γνώμη the same form is feminine. These adjectives thus have only two endings:
masculine/feminine and neuter.
“unjust” masc./fem. neuter
sing. nom. ἄδικος ἄδικον
gen. ἀδίκου ἀδίκου
dat. ἀδίκῳ ἀδίκῳ
acc. ἄδικον ἄδικον
voc. ἄδικε ἄδικον
dual n. a. v. ἀδίκω ἀδίκω
g. d. ἀδίκοιν ἀδίκοιν
plur. nom. voc. ἄδικοι ἄδικα
gen. ἀδίκων ἀδίκων
dat. ἀδίκοις ἀδίκοις
acc. ἀδίκους ἄδικα
Present Infinitive; Two-Ending Adjectives 81
7. Alpha Privative. The commonest negative compounding element in Greek is the prefix ἀ- (or ἀν- before a vowel): compare the English derivatives atypical and anhydrous and the corresponding negative prefixes in- and un- in English. Many compound adjectives meaning “not X ” or “without X ” are formed from the root X and the alpha-privative prefix, and many of these are vowel-declension adjectives of two endings.
8. Notes on Idiom and Vocabulary. The impersonals χρή and δεῖ are sometimes used synonymously, but in classical Attic there is sometimes a tendency for χρή to denote an obligation related to internal constraints of an ethical nature and δεῖ to imply external constraints. Compare τί χρὴ δρᾶν; What should I do? (in an ethically ambiguous situation) with τί δεῖ λέγειν; Why should I mention? (the matter being so obvious) or δεῖ φέρειν τὰ τῶν θεῶν. One must endure what the gods give.
The circumflex accent on U in the impersonals δεῖ and δοκεῖ is due to contraction.
(The full details about verbs with such contraction appear in Unit 13.)
9. Historical Notes. The word χρή was in origin a noun and formed an impersonal expression with the copula omitted. The Greeks came to treat it as if it were a verb.
The infinitive of χρή is χρῆναι, a contraction of χρή with εἶναι, the infinitive of εἰμί (Unit 10.4).
Outside Attic τάττω appears as τάσσω (Introd. 6 and Unit 6.4).
What to study and do
1. Study the formation and uses of the infinitive.
2. Learn the declension of two-ending adjectives of the vowel declension.
3. Learn the vocabulary of this unit.
4. Do the exercises of this unit.
Vocabulary
ω-verbs
ἀκούω hear (usually with acc. of thing heard + gen. of person from whom it is heard, alone or commonly with prep. ἀπό, ἐκ, etc.) [acoustics]
βλάπτω harm, damage
κελεύω order, command (+ acc. of person + inf.)
τάττω marshal, draw up (troops); arrange; appoint [tactics, syntagmatic]
Impersonal verbs
δεῖ it is necessary, it is needful (for one to do something) (+ acc. of person + inf.) (often to be translated with ought to, must, or should in a personal construction) [deontology]
δοκεῖ it seems good, it seems best (+ dat. of person + inf.) ἔξεστι it is permitted, it is possible (+ dat. or acc. of person + inf.) πρέπει it is fitting, it is becoming, it is seemly (+ dat. or acc. of
person + inf.)
χρή it is necessary (+ acc. of person + inf.) (often to be translated with ought to, must, or should in a personal construction)
Vowel-declension adjectives
ὅσιος, ὁσία, ὅσιον hallowed (of things, acts); pious, pure (of persons) ῥᾴδιος, ῥᾳδία, ῥᾴδιον easy
Vowel-declension adjectives with two endings ἄδικος, ἄδικον unjust
ἀθάνατος, ἀθάνατον undying, immortal ἀνόσιος, ἀνόσιον unholy, profane
βάρβαρος, βάρβαρον non-Greek-speaking, foreign; (pejorative) barbarian οἱ βάρβαροι foreigners, esp. the Persians
σύμμαχος, σύμμαχον fighting along with, allied with
οἱ σύμμαχοι allies
Principal parts
ἀκούω, ἀκούσομαι, ἤκουσα, ἀκήκοα, —, ἠκούσθην
βλάπτω, βλάψω, ἔβλαψα, βέβλαφα, βέβλαμμαι, ἐβλάβην or ἐβλάφθην κελεύω, κελεύσω, ἐκέλευσα, κεκέλευκα, κεκέλευσμαι, ἐκελεύσθην
τάττω, τάξω, ἔταξα, τέταχα, τέταγμαι, ἐτάχθην δεῖ, δεήσει, ἐδέησε, —, —, —
δοκεῖ, δόξει, ἔδοξε, —, δέδοκται, — ἔξεστι, ἐξέσται, —, —, —, — πρέπει, —, —, —, —, — χρή, χρἤσται, —, —, —, —
Present Infinitive; Two-Ending Adjectives 83
III. Render the following sentences into Greek.
Ex. It is unseemly for an unjust person to rule the just (people).
Answer οὐ πρέπει τὸν ἄδικον τῶν δικαίων ἄρχειν.
1. With friends it is easy to endure evils.
2. The general of the enemy army is marshaling his hoplites.
3. The children urge the tyrant to entrust his fate to the gods.
4. It is impossible for the immortal gods to feel [“have”] jealousy.
5. It is possible for a wicked man not to have a bad reputation.
6. It isn’t wise to damage one’s health.
7. Because of their wealth the rich are permitted to flee difficult tasks. [Hint:
convert to impersonal form, “it is permitted . . .”]
8. A poet ought to be unwilling [“not” + “be willing”] to say bad things.
9. In addition to honor, ruling brings envy.
10. O jurymen, listen to the just man and not to the unjust man.
84
1. The Verb “to be.” One of the most commonly used words in the language, the Greek verb to be shows irregularities of conjugation in all dialects. The Attic forms of the present active indicative are:
sing. 1st pers. εἰμί I am
2nd pers. εἶ you (s.) are
3rd pers. ἐστί(ν) he (she, it) is
dual 2nd pers. ἐστόν
3rd pers. ἐστόν
plur. 1st pers. ἐσμέν we are
2nd pers. ἐστέ you (pl.) are
3rd pers. εἰσί(ν) they are
Note that the third person singular and plural forms may take nu movable. (See Unit 5.5.)
2. Accentuation. All forms of the present indicative of εἰμί except the second person singular, εἶ (and the third person singular in some uses: see §3, below), are enclitic.
(See Unit 2.12.) This is traditionally indicated in paradigms by the use of the acute on the ultima. The enclitic forms are accented with an acute or a grave on U when the preceding word has an acute on P:
Ex. πολίτης ἐστί
ὁ πολίτης ἐστὶ καλός.