In the context of a particular Greek sentence, a middle/passive verb will usually be identifiable as either middle or passive in sense; but in isolation these forms are referred to in this book as middle/passive.
2. Present Middle/Passive Indicative. This is formed from the present stem plus the theme vowel ο/ε (ο before μ or ν, ε before other sounds) plus the middle/passive personal endings (-μαι, -σαι, -ται, [-σθον, -σθον,] -μεθα, -σθε, -νται). This group of middle/passive endings will recur in other areas of the verb conjugation and should be memorized. The personal endings are clearly recognizable except in the second person singular, where the consonant sigma in -εσαι has been lost and the resulting -εαι has contracted to -ῃ.
Note that the accentuation is recessive, as for all finite forms. In the present middle/
passive indicative it turns out that the accent is on the verb stem in all forms except the first person plural, where the number of syllables in the ending forces the accent to move to the theme vowel.
3. Present Middle/Passive Infinitive. The middle infinitive ending is -σθαι. When this is added to the present stem with theme vowel ε, the result is the present middle/
passive infinitive. Like the present active infinitive, it is accented on the final syllable of the verb stem: for example, λύεσθαι, to ransom or to be released.
4. Present Middle/Passive Imperative (Second Person). As was true in the present active, the second person plural of the present middle/passive imperative looks just like the indicative, with -εσθε as ending. The singular has the ending -ου.
first principal
part 2nd singular 2nd plural translation
λύω λύου λύεσθε ransom
πείθω πείθου πείθεσθε obey
Present Middle/Passive Indicative 93
5. Deponent Verbs. Many Greek verbs are found only in middle/passive forms and have no active forms. Such verbs are called deponent (a not very helpful term coined by Latin grammarians). You will recognize deponent verbs in vocabulary lists or a dictionary because the first principal part is the first person singular present middle/
passive form (-ομαι instead of -ω).
γίγνομαι I become, I am born βούλομαι I desire, I want αἰσθάνομαι I perceive
6. Idiomatic Meanings of the Middle Voice. It takes time for the student to get an adequate sense of the range of implications conveyed by the middle voice. Here are some examples of common verbs to illustrate shifts in meaning noticeable between active and middle.
πείθω + acc. I persuade, urge
πείθομαι + dat. I obey, trust, believe (a person) ἔχω + acc. I have, hold
ἔχομαι + gen. I hold on to, cling to
ἄγω I lead
ἄγομαι I lead (a woman) for myself; I marry (a woman)
γράφω I write
γράφομαι I indict, bring a suit against (literally, I get X[’s name]
recorded by the magistrates)
φέρω I carry
φέρομαι I carry off for myself, I win (a prize) δικάζω I (as a judge) decide a suit
δικάζομαι I (as a plaintiff ) conduct a suit σπένδω I pour a libation
σπένδομαι I make a truce (solemnized by a libation)
λύω I release
λύομαι I ransom
βουλεύω I plan
βουλεύομαι I deliberate πολιτεύω I am a citizen
πολιτεύομαι I behave like a citizen; I participate in public affairs;
I am a politician
As can be seen, the middle usually implies that the subject is more closely involved or interested in the action. The middle is common when emphasis is laid on mental or perceptual activities: note the deponent αἰσθάνομαι, and later you will learn several
verbs of intellectual activity that lack a future active but possess a future middle (Unit 18).
7. Agent with a Passive Verb. When a Greek verb is used in a passive form or has a passive meaning, the personal agent, if mentioned, is usually expressed in a prepo-sitional phrase with ὑπό governing the genitive (equivalent to English by someone).
τὸ παιδίον ὑπὸ τῆς ἀδελφῆς φέρεται.
The child is being carried by his sister.
8. Notes on Vocabulary and Idiom. In Greco-Roman antiquity a libation was a ritual offering of liquid to the gods; it was made by pouring the liquid on an altar or on the ground. The liquid could be wine, milk, honey, oil, or a mixture. Since truces and treaties were solemnized with libations (among other rituals), the verb σπένδω developed its middle sense, make a truce or settle a quarrel.
In poetry βούλομαι and ἐθέλω may be synonymous, but in classical prose there is often a clear distinction between active desire (βούλομαι) and willingness or consent (ἐθέλω).
οἶμαι is an alternative contracted form of the first person singular οἴομαι. The remaining forms of the present are normal: οἴῃ, οἴεται, and so forth; present infini-tive οἴεσθαι.
9. Historical Notes. Sigma between vowels (intervocalic sigma) was lost in the devel-opment of many Greek forms, and in Attic this loss usually resulted in the con-traction of the vowels. This has happened in -εσαι becoming -ῃ and (in the second person singular imperative) -εσο becoming –ου; and you will see it again in a class of nouns and adjectives in Units 15 and 22.
From about 350 b.c.e. the second person singular middle/passive ending was often spelled (and pronounced) -ει rather than -ῃ in Attic, and the form in -ει will be found in modern editions of some Greek authors (either under the influence of the spelling in manuscripts or because the editor believes the particular author originally used this form). Note that such middle/passive forms as λύει, πείθει look exactly like the third person singular active form; but in the context of a sentence there is usually no ambiguity. In this book only -ῃ is used.
What to study and do
1. Learn the conjugation of the present middle/passive indicative and imperative and the formation of the present middle/passive infinitive.
2. Study the idiomatic meanings of the middle of verbs learned previously (§6).
3. Learn the vocabulary of this unit.
4. Do the exercises of this unit.
Present Middle/Passive Indicative 95
Vocabulary
ω-verbs
ἀποκτείνω (ἀπο) kill, put to death
βουλεύω plan, devise; (mid.) take counsel, deliberate [probouleutic]
γυμνάζω train (naked), exercise; (mid.) exercise oneself, be in training [gymnastics, gymnasium]
δικάζω judge; serve as judge or juror; (mid.) plead a case, participate in a suit
κόπτω strike, chop, beat; plunder (land); (mid.) beat one’s breast in mourning [syncope]
παρασκευάζω (παρα) prepare, provide, procure; (mid.) prepare for oneself, make preparations
πολῑτεύω be a citizen; have a certain form of government; (mid.) live or behave as a free citizen; participate in politics
σπένδω pour a libation; (mid.) exchange libations, make a truce, make peace [spondaic]
Deponent verbs
αἰσθάνομαι perceive (+ acc. or + gen.); sense, understand [aesthetics]
βούλομαι want, desire, wish (+ complementary inf.) γίγνομαι come into being, be born, become; occur [genus]
ἔρχομαι come, go
μάχομαι fight (+ dat. of the enemy person or + prep. phrase) οἴομαι or οἶμαι think, suppose, believe
παρακελεύομαι (παρα) exhort, encourage (+ dat. of person, sometimes + inf.) πυνθάνομαι learn, hear (sometimes + gen. of person); learn by
inquiry, inquire Preposition
ὑπό (elided ὑπ’ or ὑφ’) (+ gen.) from under, under; by (agent with passive verb or expression); (+ dat.) under; under the power of; (+ acc.) under, during, in the course of [hypothesis, hypotenuse, hypodermic]
Principal parts
ἀποκτείνω, ἀποκτενέω, ἀπέκτεινα, ἀπέκτονα, —, —
βουλεύω, βουλεύσω, ἐβούλευσα, βεβούλευκα, βεβούλευμαι, ἐβουλεύθην
γυμνάζω, γυμνάσω, ἐγύμνασα, γεγύμνακα, γεγύμνασμαι, ἐγυμνάσθην
I. Give a complete identification of each verb form and translate it precisely.
Ex. παρασκευαζόμεθα: 1st pl. pres. mid./pass. ind. of παρασκευάζω,
13. you (pl.) are being marshaled 14. to be in training
Present Middle/Passive Indicative 97
15. I participate in politics 16. they are fighting 17. you (s.) suppose 18. it is being led 19. we are indicting 20. they become 21. we are being ruled 22. to learn by inquiry
23. I am not willing 24. to prepare 25. she supposes 26. we are 27. to be
28. he is beating his breast 29. to be carried
30. find for yourselves III. Translate.
1. ἐν τῷ πρὸς τοὺς βαρβάρους πολέμῳ ἀγαθοῖς πολεμίοις μάχονται οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι.
2. τοὺς στρατηγοὺς χρὴ βουλεύεσθαι.
3. τοὺς ὁπλίτας κελεύουσι τάττεσθαι παρὰ τὸν ποταμόν.
4. μὴ σπένδεσθε, ἀλλὰ βούλεσθε μάχεσθαι.
5. χαλεποῖς ἔργοις νίκη τοῖς Ἀθηναίοις γίγνεται.
6. σπένδονται τῇ ὑστέρᾳ ἡμέρᾳ.
7. ἔχεσθαι χρὴ τῆς τιμῆς.
8. οὐχ ὑπὸ τῶν πολεμίων βλάπτεσθε, ἀλλ’ ὑπὸ τῶν στρατιωτῶν οἳ φεύγειν παρακελεύονται.
9. οὐκ ἔξεστι τοῖς παιδίοις τοῖς θεοῖς σπένδειν.
10. οἱ ναῦται πρὸς τὴν τῶν βαρβάρων χώραν τοῖς ἀνέμοις ἐλαύνονται.
11. ἀκούετε τοὺς λόγους, ὦ Ἀθηναῖοι, καὶ βουλεύεσθε.
12. μάχου, νεανία, παρὰ τοῖς ἑταίροις καὶ νίκην φέρου.
13. οὐ φεύγειν ἐθέλουσιν οἱ πλεῖστοι τῶν στρατιωτῶν.
14. τὰ παιδία εἰς τὸ ἱερὸν ἄγεται ὑπὸ τοῦ διδασκάλου.
15. ἴσθι ἄξιος τῆς ἀρχῆς ἣν οἱ πολῖται ἐπιτρέπουσιν.
16. δοκεῖ τῷ Ἰσαίῳ ἄγεσθαι τὴν τοῦ ποιητοῦ ἀδελφήν.
98
Preliminaries
A. Adverbs. An adverb (Greek ἐπίρρημα, Latin adverbium, “word added to the verb”) is the part of speech that modifies (qualifies, limits) a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs usually express ideas of manner or degree or time or place.
Ex. They walk quickly. (modifying verb walk) The pitcher is fairly good. (modifying adj. good) The house is very poorly constructed. (modifying adverb poorly)
In many languages a large number of the adverbs are derived from adjectives by the addition of a standard suffix. In English the suffix is -ly. (Compare German -lich, French -ment, Spanish and Italian -mente.)
Β. Personal Pronouns. The pronouns that refer without special demonstrative emphasis to persons or things are personal pronouns. (For the concept of person, review Unit 5 Prelim.; for pronouns in general, Unit 8 Prelim. D.) Personal pronouns occur in all three persons: (1st) I, me, we, us; (2nd) you; (3rd) he, him, she, her, it, they, them. In English (as in some other languages), the personal pronouns are very com-mon, because English verbs must have either a noun subject or an explicit pronoun as subject; and there are also other uses of the personal pronouns. Greek verbs nor-mally do without an explicit pronoun subject, but a personal pronoun may be used as subject for purposes of emphasis, and there are other uses for the oblique cases.