Private versus Public Domain

The distinction between private and public life (Arends-Tóth and van de Vijver, 2007) is of importance since these two life domains may reveal different behavioural patterns.

Ethnic consumers may use more ethnic-oriented products in private consumption contexts than in public consumption contexts. If the consumption context is ethnically relevant, individuals are likely to consume ethnic products (Stayman and Deshpandé, 1989). Jamal (2003) for example, studied ethnic minority and mainstream consumers in the UK to investigate the food consumption differences between the two groups. The ethnic consumers maintained their original cultural identity both at a private (e.g. with family) and public level (e.g. the workplace). Turkish-Dutch individuals emphasise the importance the importance of both Dutch and Turkish culture in their lives. However, this varies in life domains. Adjustment to Dutch culture is more emphasised in the public domain while maintenance of Turkish culture is more emphasised in the private domain (Arends-Tóth and van de Vijver, 2004). Consequently, this context influences ethnic consumers in their life domains and their consumption patterns. Thus, it is expected that life domains exert an influence on consumption, in which the Turkish culture i.e. Turkish identification, is more valued in both domains and the Dutch culture i.e. Dutch acculturation, only in the public domain. Therefore, it is assumed that Turkish identification has an impact on domestic consumption and Dutch acculturation has an impact on mainstream consumption.

H1a: Turkish identification has a positive impact on domestic consumption.

H1b: Dutch acculturation has a positive impact on mainstream consumption.

Ethnic Crossover is defined as “when a product intended for one ethnic minority group gains significant penetration among consumers outside that referent ethnic group”. (Grier

et al., 2006, p.35). In this study, ethnic crossover is defined as “when a product intended for one ethnic group, i.e. mainstream, gains significant penetration among other ethnic groups, i.e. immigrants”. This definition is in line with Gibbs’ (1999) definition that a product designed for one target segment meets acceptance in another segment.

Immigrants adjust to the mainstream culture in certain life domains. The consumer learning process, i.e. education, workforce, media, allows consumers to participate in the host culture (Maldonado and Tansuhaj, 2002). The process of acculturation in the private domain, e.g. family, exhibits a strong attachment to the host culture and impacts on host cultural behaviour (Hui et al., 1992). Simultaneously, ethnic consumers may consumer mainstream products as a result of changes in their public life domains, e.g. workforce.

Maldonado and Tansuhaj (2002) stated that an individual can move between the home and host culture in the process of acculturation as a result of close friendship or partnership (i.e. private life domain) with a person from the mainstream culture. In the context of this study, for a Turkish-Dutch immigrant for example, who has a partnership with a Dutch individual in their private life, this implies that the Turkish-Dutch immigrant will more likely consume mainstream products. The studies of Hutnik and Barrett (2003) concluded that all four strategies of acculturation (integration, assimilation, separation and marginalisation) occur and exist. Therefore the life domains in acculturation require further research and examination. The impact of ethnic identity on ethnic consumption is shown in previous research, however the impact of various acculturation domains on crossover are not identified.

H1c: Domestic and mainstream consumption is impacted by the culture-specific domains, Turkish and Dutch.

2.6.1.2 Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is an important predictor in studying ethnic consumers (Josiassen, 2011).

In a study of Asian Americans it was shown that the perceived parental cultural identification tended to strengthen the ethnic identity (Xu et al., 2004). The ethnic identity of these young adults was shown to influence their consumption choices with regard to ethnic food and entertainment in general. In addition, the interaction of acculturation and ethnic identification had a positive influence. This provides valuable information in line with Peñaloza’s (1994) argument against assimilation. Laroche et al. (2007) emphasises the importance of children’s purchase influence (CPI) to understand family consumption behaviour. The study of CPI examined the effects of cultural adaptation of Hong Kong Chinese immigrants in Canada, including the ethnic identification and the role of acculturation. The study revealed that acculturation influenced CPI positively and ethnic

identification negatively. In addition, the interaction of acculturation and ethnic identification had a positive influence.

For many immigrants, their ethnic (national) identity has been taken for granted and often the national identity of this group is simplified and considered similar to that of the country of origin. However, immigration radically alters this perspective. Migration offers immigrants the choice to either maintain their heritage culture, adapt totally or partially to the new host culture. The dynamic process of acculturation as the result of immigration is beyond one strategy. While first-hand contact between individuals may produce changes in attitudes, values, and behaviours, one important component of acculturation relates to changes in cultural identity. It is widely agreed that identification with both the home country and host country is an important component of identity in immigrant groups in consumer acculturation. The Turkish view themselves as a “bit more Turkish than Dutch”, their children as “a bit more Dutch than Turkish” and their grandchildren as “more Dutch than Turkish” (Arends-Tóth and van de Vijver, 2004). Research indicates that the ethnic identity and the extent of acculturation (i.e. adoption to the mainstream consumer environment) of ethnic minority consumers are likely to impact on their consumer buying behaviours (Peñaloza, 1994; Jamal, 2003). Ethnic identity, with the ethnic group membership of friends, impacts on their preference for entertainment activities (Keefe and Padilla, 1987). Xu et al. (2004) has also shown that ethnic friendship orientation has a positive impact on domestic consumption, in-line with findings by Keefe and Padilla (1987) with Mexican Americans. Family, friends, media, and social and religious institutions from both cultures serve as “dual sets of acculturation agents” (Peñaloza 1994, p. 49).

Immigrants will hold on to parts of their culture even though they will accept and adapt European ideals and values. Numerous reasons exist for this phenomenon. For example, those whose physical features set them apart from the society of settlement (e.g. Koreans in Canada, or Turks in The Netherlands and Germany) may experience prejudice and discrimination, and thus be reluctant to pursue assimilation (Berry et al., 1989). Nevertheless, marketers must create messages that mix both aspects of that new identity. Today, many Turkish immigrants, for example, identify with their Turkish roots and own a passport from the host country. They feel emotionally rooted in the Turkish culture, an imagined community, while they could not imagine living “there”. The first generation lives mostly in the home country again after retirement, whereas later generations are building a future in the host country. Research by Arends-Tóth and van de Vijver (2004) show a pattern of increasing adaptation of the Turkish immigrants to the host culture (Dutch) across generations. The fact that the first wave of Turkish

immigrants, entered in the ‘60s and ‘70s, is mainly analphabetic and cannot speak the host language, will hinder acculturation and adaptation, and causes strong identification with fellow immigrants from the same culture.

Ethnic identity indicates the level of attachment to home values and behaviours, the degree of which results in ethnic customs, home language and ethnic media consumption (Cleveland et al., 2013). The context (public versus private domain) reflects the ethnic identity position (Oswald, 1999). It is expected that acculturation is influenced by the degree of ethnic identity. Therefore, acculturation agents (e.g. family, ethnic friends and ethnic media) influence Turkish individuals to hold on to their ethnic identity.

Ethnic identity is sensitive to context (Cleveland and Laroche, 2007) and likely reflects the relationships of the home and the host culture. For example, ethnic friendship orientation has been shown to influence ethnic consumer behaviour (Xu et al., 2004).

Quester et al. (2001, p.8) stated that:-

“acculturation is related to consumer behaviour; how much an individual identifies with a given ethnic group may largely determine the individual's commitment to cultural norms and the degree of influence exerted by a particular culture”.

Similarly, Berry and Sam (1997, p.294) state that people “vary greatly in the degree to which they participate in these community changes”. The ‘reference group’ to which an individual relates is an important consideration in consumer acculturation (Peñaloza, 1994). Peers influence individuals and support maintaining the group identity (Bearden &

Etzel, 1982; Xu et al., 2004). Peers and reference groups impact ethnic consumers (Sekhon and Szmigin, 2011). Immigrants’ consumer acculturation is likely influenced by the identification with the home or host. Individuals who identify with ethnic (e.g. Turkish-Dutch) friends are likely to consume domestic products instead of mainstream products (Maldonado and Tansuhaj, 2002). This contributes to the formation of their values, affects ethnic identity and impacts consumption (Bearden and Etzel, 1982). Ethnic identity has shown to be ‘salient’ (Cleveland et al., 2013; Oswald, 1999) and drives consumption (Peñaloza, 1994). It is assumed that ethnic identity influences ethnic identification and thus has an influence on consumption. Ethnic friendship orientation is assumed to moderate this influence (Peñaloza, 1994; Xu et al., 2004).

H2a: Ethnic friendship orientation has a positive effect on ethnic identity.

H2b: Ethnic identity has a positive impact on domestic consumption.

H2c: Ethnic identity has a negative impact on mainstream consumption.