Questionnaire Design

The questionnaire consisted of five main sections covering issues related to heritage identification and national identity in this study. The sections are presented below and a copy of the questionnaire is contained in Appendix 1.

Cultural Heritage Identification

The first section of the questionnaire was designed to examine cultural heritage that South Koreans identify as their own cultural heritage (i.e. Korean cultural heritage) and out-group‘s cultural heritage (i.e. Japanese colonial heritage). Participants were asked to identify up to five aspects of Korean cultural heritage and Japanese colonial heritage. Afterwards, they were asked to rate the heritage they think is most typically Korean and Japanese colonial heritage from the list they had already specified. This task was located at the very beginning of the questionnaire in order to maximise their inspiration for cultural heritage.

Sense of Attachment to Cultural Heritage

In order to measure the degree to which the participants have a sense of attachment to cultural heritage, a modified Place Attachment Scale (Williams & Roggenbuck, 1989; Williams, 2000; Williams & Vaske, 2003) was used. Williams and his colleagues introduced a number of statements for measuring various types of place attachment (e.g. emotional/symbolic/functional attachment). In this questionnaire, seven items were chosen from their measurement scales because they were reliable and the items could be adapted to measure participants‘ attachment to cultural heritage. Items that could best fit a heritage setting were included, such as „I feel this heritage is a part of me‟, „this heritage is very special to me‟, „I identify strongly with this heritage‟, „this heritage means a lot to me‟, and „this heritage says a lot about who I am‟. The participants were asked to rate the perceived level of attachment to Korean cultural heritage and Japanese colonial heritage using a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from ‗strongly disagree‘ to ‗strongly agree‘, with a mid-point of ‗neither agree nor disagree‘.

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Cultural Heritage and a Sense of National Identity

The way cultural heritage links to a sense of national identity was examined through the interpretive lens of Breakwell‘s (1986, 1988, 1993) Identity Process Theory.

She argues that four main psychological motivations control identity processes, which are self-esteem, self-efficacy, distinctiveness, and continuity. The measurement scales, comprising fifteen item scales, were devised with the aim of measuring the extent to which participants derive their sense of esteem, self-efficacy, distinctiveness, and continuity from cultural heritage, and identity motivations salient for South Koreans. The self-esteem scale, capturing the participants‘ general feeling of personal worth and social value as Koreans, consisted of four items: heritage make me feel that “I am proud to be Korean”, “I sometimes feel that being Korean give me confidence”, “I do not feel good about being Korean”

and “Knowing I am Korean does not make me feel good about myself”. The self-efficacy scale, measuring the participants‘ feelings of confidence and of being in control of their life as Koreans, consisted of four items: “being Korean provides me with lots of opportunities”, “being Korean gives me advantage in life”, ―As a Korean, I often feel successful” and “I feel as though I can achieve my goals in life because I am Korean”. The distinctiveness scale was designed with the aim of measuring their desire to maintain uniqueness as well as distinctiveness from other nationalities.

The four items were: “being Korean make me feel special”, “being Korean makes me feel better than other nationalities”, ―Being Korean does not make me feel different from other nationalities”, and ―Being Korean, I feel I have much in common with other nationalities”. The continuity scale, capturing the participants‘ feelings of the existence of self as Koreans across time and situations, comprised three statements: “being Korean gives me a real sense of my heritage”, “being Korean gives me a strong belief in the future”, and “Being Korean gives me a sense of destiny”. In addition to these key questions based on the Identity Process Theory, three simple questions were added in order to obtain information on how much they feel cultural heritage is related to their sense of national identity (e.g. familiarity, centrality, positivity). The rating in these questions used a seven-point Likert scale.

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National Group Identification

The theoretical orientation adopted in this measurement was based on Tajfel (1978, 1981, 1982) and Tajfel and Turner‘s (1986) Social Identity Theory, which focuses on the notion that the strength of membership of groups and group categorisation would influence inter-group attitudes. The strength of national in-group identification was assessed using five item scales derived from Barrett‘s (2007) Strength of Identification Scale (SoIS), a multi-item measure of the strength of national, state, and ethnic identification. This measurement scale consisted of a set of five items measuring degree of identification (―To what extent do you feel Korean?‖), pride (―How proud are you of being Korean?‖), importance (―How important is it to you that you are Korean?‖), feeling (―How do you feel about being Korean?‖), and internalization (―How you would feel if someone said something bad about Korean people?‖). A seven-point Likert scale specified the degree of agreement with each measurement item. Perceptions of national group status in comparison with Japanese nationalities was measured using a series of specific emotions towards the national out-group (17 emotions) derived from Fiske, Cuddy and Glick‘s (2003) intergroup emotions scale, measuring perceived out-group‘s status. This measurement scale consists of a series of emotions usually felt towards out-groups according to different intergroup statuses, such as groups seen as high status (e.g.

warm: admiration, respect, fond of, inspired by, pride in, trust; cold: jealousy, fear, suspicious of) and low status (e.g. warm: pity, sympathy; cold: anger, contempt, disgust, hatred, resentment, despise). The participants were asked to indicate the extent to which any of these emotions in the list applied Japanese nationalities (e.g.

how much do you feel …towards Japanese?).

Demographic Measures

In the last section of the questionnaire, the participants were asked to provide information on their personal background. The first part of this section focused on the participants‘ personal and family life history, such as their place of birth, length of residence in South Korea, and personal and family life under Japanese colonial rule. The second part of this section consisted of questions identifying their demographic characteristics. Respondents were asked to indicate their age, gender,

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position in family (e.g. generations), employment status (e.g. full time paid, part time paid, studying, retired), their perceived social class (e.g. working class, middle class, upper class), and education level attained. The background information obtained through this section identified the existence of any influence from the participants‘

personal characteristics on their heritage identification with respect to a sense of national identity.

With the above main sections covering research questions in Study One, several extra questions (e.g. views about Japanese colonial buildings, personal life history) were added in order to collect primary information in constructing later studies (e.g.

Studies Two and Three). Finally, the participants were asked to indicate their willingness to participate in a Multiple Sorting Task (Study Two).