Questionnaire: Sampling and Procedure

The questionnaire was conducted in May and June 2010 in South Korea. Six hundred and sixty four valid data sets were obtained. Samples were drawn from South Koreans living in Seoul, South Korea, by using non-probability sampling techniques, a mixture of convenience sampling and purposive sampling (e.g. quota sampling, snowball sampling). Non-probability sampling techniques may curtail the generalizability of research findings because intentionally selected samples do not represent the overall population (Sekaran, 2003; Vanderstoep & Johnston, 2009).

Additionally, the choice of samples may lead to a bias which challenges the validity of research findings (Heckathorn, 2002). Despite the disadvantage, it is widely acknowledged that non-probability sampling techniques are more feasible and

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flexible than random sampling techniques in terms of research cost and time, and ease of access to source of information (Watters & Biernacki, 1989; Kemper, Stringfield & Teddlie, 2003; Sekaran, 2003). Watters and Biernacki (1989) also emphasise that non-probability sampling techniques (e.g. targeted sampling) are more powerful tools than random sampling techniques, if carried out appropriately and population parameters are known. This study employed non-probability sampling techniques because selecting participants in the position to offer the required information (i.e. South Koreans who have grown up and living in Seoul where many symbolic Japanese colonial architectural heritage are located) could be expected to provide the most information for the research questions. Although random sampling techniques produce generalizable information, information derived from the population who do not meet research criteria (e.g. participant‘s age, residence, living history, ethnic, nationality) may not be useful to answer the research questions. Not only to reduce the biases associated with non-probability sampling techniques but also to increase credibility of the obtained information, a large number of samples were selected in this study (i.e. over 600 participants).

Additionally, participants were recruited through a structured process. Sampling began with an examination of lists of local educational institutions (e.g. universities), community centres (e.g. local community centres, senior welfare community centres, community clubs, citizen groups), and local business companies and private organisations in Seoul, and requested their participation in the questionnaire study by emails and telephone. The researcher also asked participants to recommend others they may know who also meet the criteria, which is snowball sampling. When they confirmed interest in this study, the researcher visited and briefed them beforehand as to the nature, content and purpose of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was self-administered; therefore, the questionnaires were distributed to participants and the researcher revisited them a week later to collect the questionnaire. The samples were also selected non-randomly according to a fixed quota. The researcher specified the minimum number of samples in each generational group (e.g. minimum of 200 samples in each generation group for the questionnaire), and continued sampling until the required number of participants was achieved.

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5.3.1 Demographic Information and Generation Grouping

59.8% of the participants (397 respondents) were male and 40.2% of the participants (267 respondents) were female in this study (Table 5.1). The average age of participants was 40 years (Table 5.2). 99.5 % of participants (661 respondents) were born in South Korea, and their average length of residence in South Korea was 39.95 years.

Table 5.1 Sex of Participants

Gender Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %

Male 397 59.8 59.8 59.8

Female 267 40.2 40.2 100.0

Total 664 100.0 100.0

Table 5.2 Age Band of Participants

Age Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %

18 – 24 131 19.7 19.7 19.7

25 – 34 170 25.6 25.6 45.3

35 – 44 109 16.4 16.4 61.7

45 – 54 93 14.0 14.0 75.8

55 – 64 99 14.9 14.9 90.7

Over 65 62 9.3 9.3 100.0

Total 664 100.0 100.0

The participants were formed from three different generation groups of South Koreans (i.e. 211 older generations, 227 middle generations, and 226 younger generations) to identify any inter-generational differences in South Korean society.

The key criteria in grouping generations were the periods following two political and economic events which marked a watershed in the modern history of South Korea (Figure 5.1):

• Korean society after the normalisation of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Japan (1965)

• Korean society after the lifting of Japanese cultural exports to South Korea (1988)

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One of the key criteria in grouping generations in a South Korean context was the normalising diplomatic relations between South Korea and Japan (1965). The samples from the older generation were recruited on the basis that their early life (e.g.

childhood) was spent under Japanese colonial rule (before 1945) and post-colonial South Korean society. This generation is highly likely to have a significant amount of either direct or indirect experience of Japanese colonial rule in their everyday lives.

Another key turning point in the modern history of South Korea could be observed in connection with the lifting of Japanese cultural exports to South Korea in the late 1980s. Before this period, Japanese popular culture (e.g. animations, movies, songs, books) was strictly prohibited in South Korean society and high antagonism towards Japanese nationality existed in South Korean society. The samples from the middle generation were chosen from people who have grown up in a society holding high antagonism towards Japanese nationality based on the colonial history and who were less likely to contact Japanese popular culture at their younger age. The younger generations were recruited on the basis that they have grown up after the lifting of Japanese cultural exports to South Korea. Therefore, they are less likely to be affected by past inter-group conflict (i.e. colonial history) and less likely to have antagonism towards Japanese nationality. It was anticipated that each different generation in South Korea would have a variety of life experiences under different social contexts in South Korea.

Figure 5.1 Generation Divisions in Study One

Drawing on the above criteria, three different generation groups were identified in this research: the younger generation were defined as young adult Koreans above 18

Older Generation

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years and under 30 years, the middle generation were those aged between 30 and 49 years, and the older generation referred to South Koreans over 50 years. The samples in this study consist of two hundred and twenty six South Koreans from the younger generation (34.0%), two hundred and twenty seven South Koreans from the middle generation (34.2%), and two hundred and eleven South Koreans from the older generation (31.8%) in South Korean society (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3 Participants from Three Generation Groups

Groups Frequency % Valid % Cumulative %

Younger generation 226 34.0 34.0 34.0

Middle generation 227 34.2 34.2 68.2

Older generation 211 31.8 31.8 100.0

Total 664 100.0 100.0

5.3.2 Pilot Study

In advance of the main questionnaire study that took place in Seoul in 2010, all measurement scales were piloted on small samples of South Koreans living in the UK (i.e. 20 Korean students in University of Surrey and 20 Korean residents in New Malden, Surrey) in February 2010, and South Koreans living in Seoul, South Korea (e.g. 20 local university students and company workers) in April in 2010. Problems related to the wording of the measurement items and the length of the questionnaire was uncovered during the two pilot studies. For some participants, especially from the older generation group, the wording of the measurement items and format of the questionnaire were over-complex. Additionally, the majority of participants spent more than twenty minutes in completing the questionnaire and the completion time for the older generation participants was longer. These problems not only restricted the number of people willing to participate but also raised issues concerning understanding of the measurement items and the quality of the obtained data. In order to minimise inconsistency in interpreting questions and to simplify the format of the questionnaire, some changes were made to the wording of items in the final version of the questionnaire.

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