Research process

Population, sample, selection criteria, size, methods and procedures 3.4.1 Population and sample

Arkava & Lane (1983) postulate that a population refers to a group that you wish to generalize your research to. In addition, populations are often defined in terms of demography, geography, occupation, time and care requirements among other factors (De Vos et al,, 2011). For this study, the population were young Xhosa speaking gay men in the

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Cape Town Metropole, who are Xhosa-speaking gay men and who underwent the ritual of Ulwaluko, living in one of the following areas:

Table 1: Cape Metropole areas

Brackenfell Durbanville Bellville Blue Downs Nyanga Crossroads Eerste River Elsies River Goodwood Gugulethu Khayelitsha Kraaifontein

Langa Mfuleni Philippi

Parow Mitchells Plain Kuils River

Due to the large size of the research populations, according to Sharma (2014), researchers often cannot include every individual in the population because it is too expensive and time- consuming therefore, relying on sampling techniques. According to Arkava & Lane (1983), a sample is defined as elements of the population considered for the actual same of the features within the population group. For the research study, the sample drawn from the population of the Xhosa-speaking gay men in the Cape Metropole, were Xhosa-speaking gay men who had undergone Ulwaluko which is the traditional initiation rite of passage to manhood practised by amaXhosa (Xhosa) and who were between the ages of 18-35.

The sample was taken as a means of helping the researcher explain some of the features within the population group, but moreover, to attempt to answer the research question “What

are the experiences of Ulwaluko of Xhosa-speaking gay men and how have they influenced their construction of masculine identity?” Henning, Van Rensburg & Smit

(2004:71) argue that “sampling is not only vital for practical reasons, but it is also vital for the part of the process of delineating the inquiry-setting the definition post clearly”, which basically means that sampling includes identifying and negotiating access to research sites and subjects. Sharma (2014:206) defines sampling as “the process of obtaining information regarding a phenomenon about an entire population by examining a part of it”.

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3.4.2 Sampling method and procedure

For the researcher to describe and explore the findings for a population, she had to make sure that she gets a good sample for the research study which vitally depended on her sampling method. In selecting the research method, the researcher had to take into consideration that the sampling is free from bias and errors and it’s free from deliberate selection of the subjects as she also had to keep in mind that she was conducting research on a phenomenon which could be sensitive to some participants. With these in mind, the researcher made use of the non-probability sampling method. According to Hall (2008), a non-probability sampling method is a technique wherein the sample is gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected but provides a possibility to reflect on descriptive comments of the sample.

The use of a non-probability sampling method for this research study was aimed at not making a generalisation from the sample of the population but to select a certain type of participant, giving the researcher an opportunity also to systematically omit sectors of the population from the sample. Moreover, as the research goal was more about obtaining information about a highly specific event and process which was Ulwaluko, a non-probability sampling selection then deemed more appropriate in answering the research question.

Looking at how the study was structured, and because the research done was on an issue/topic which was considered sensitive and secret, the researcher made use of a snowball sampling as non-probability sampling technique. The researcher’s sampling method was motivated by reading Bryman (2012) who states that snowball sampling is one technique which enables access to hidden populations such as the stigmatized in society, which in this study are the gay men who may be reluctant to take part in the study.

Bryman (2012) adds that using snowball sampling may develop trust as referrals will be made by acquaintances or peers. This method of sampling was also chosen as the researcher tried to identify and negotiate access to research sites via Mosaic (an organisation that works with domestic violence and seeks to involve men in their children’s life), Sonke Gender Justice (an organisation that engages women and men, girls and boys to work together to resist patriarchy, advocate for gender justice to achieve gender transformation), the Triangle Project (a non-profit human’s rights organisation that offers professional services to challenge homophobia in order for communities to appreciate sexual diversity), Health4Men (A project that offer health services and aims to respond to HIV among gay, bisexual and

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other men who have sex with men), UWC Gender Equity Unit (A university unit that works in promoting gender equality and promote social justice and human rights at University level) and Reslife (University of the Western Cape Residential Service Department). Through these research sites the researcher engaged with the different research sites telephonically, via email and others such as the UWC Gender Equity Unit and Mosaic via requesting a meeting with the Managers to discuss the aim and objectives of the research study and request assistance in obtaining participants for the study. To some researchers the sampling method employed by the researcher might be defined as network sampling as oppose to snowball sampling and making use of gatekeepers to gain entry to research sites and access to participants. However, the researcher strongly felt that it was more of snowball sampling as participants were more from a hidden population as ascribed by Bryman (2012). The research information sheets, consent forms and the ethical clearance were provided to be shared with potential research participants who might be interested in taking part of the research study. Those interested were then to contact the researcher via email, whatsApp or giving her a call. This process turned out to be time-consuming and a bit of a challenge as the researcher had to keep on following up with the research site to check whether there was anyone who seemed interested in taking part in the research study. This process was also a challenge due the uncertainty of whether the information was shared with any of the potential participants or if whether the information was shared among those who might meet the selection criteria. This highlighted the disadvantages of using snowball sampling through research sites as argued by Tansey (2017:18) who states that making use of snowball sampling can be time consuming as it requires the researcher to be “heavily involved in developing and managing the initiation and progress of the sample and seek to ensure at all times that the chain of referrals remains within boundaries that are relevant to the study”

Using the snowball sampling was also a disadvantage as some of the participants referred friends without explaining to them clearly what the research was about only to have them withdraw from the study when it was explained to them what the research entailed. The researcher had about four participants who withdrew from the study due to the misconception of what the research was about and them feeling uncomfortable in talking about Ulwaluko although the researcher had gone the ethical consideration with them. The researcher also assumed the misconceptions of the research study might also be the reason why she did not find any research participants through the research sites. This response is supported by Rubin & Babbie (2010) who states that the dangers of using snowball sampling more especially for

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a sample which is considered as a hidden population which requires a degree of trust to initiate contact, is that the potential participants may be reluctant to take part in the study more especially if they are already vulnerable and stigmatised in society.

Monette, Sullivan & DeJong (2011) further argue that researchers need to understand that by their nature, members of a hidden population are difficult to locate which will require the knowledge of insiders to obtain potential participants for the study. However, Rubin & Babbie (2010) add that obtaining the knowledge of insiders may not be readily available to researchers and it may be time-consuming and labour intensive. In addition, Monette, et al. (2011) maintain that in a more practical and ethical sense, research participants need to be reassured of the protection of the information they provide which can be established over time. However, through referrals of peers or the initial participants, it might be difficult in ensuring confidentiality of further participants if there are no clear explanations of confidentiality concerns raised.

The researcher then tried a different sampling strategy where she would have the opportunity to engage with the potential participants and be able to explain more about the research study and its ethical considerations to gain trust and build relationships. She then attended the Mr & Miss Gay Cape Town Pride pageant held at Sea Point Civic centre on the 25 of February 2017 to get an opportunity to engage with more potential participants and get more research sites. Engaging with the potential participants in their comfort space worked to the researcher’s advantage as it enabled her to get two participants who were interested in taking part in the research study which she then got to interview two days after.

Engaging with potential research participants to gain their trust and interest in being part of the research study is supported by Horn, Edwards & Terry (2011). Horn et al. (2011) state that gaining trust and developing a relationship with research participants requires researchers to show shared interest, accountability and concern for the best interest of others which can be done through face-to-face interaction between the researcher and research participants. This engagement was also to allow participants to get to know more about the researcher as research participants also desire to know who will have access to their information, for what purpose and who will decide on those issues in an ongoing way.

The advantages of using snowball sampling were that it gave the researcher access to research participants. One of the researcher’s friends who knew potential research participants created a WhatsApp group which was used to introduce the researcher. This was

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also used as the platform where the researcher could get to build trust and develop a relationship with the research participants. Furthermore, the WhatsApp group platform was also used to share information on the research, address any concerns raised and ensure confidentiality. A date was then set where all research participants could meet with the researcher to conduct the interviews. At first, this was a challenge as some of the participants were a bit hesitant to take part in the research; they then needed some convincing. Furthermore, there was a challenge in getting some of the participants to agree on a day to conduct the interview. The suggestion was then made by one of the participants that they all meet on a Saturday and then we spend the whole day conducting the interviews to which everyone agreed. A convenient date was then set.

3.4.3 Sample size & selection criteria

According to Emmel (2013: 146) “there are no guidelines, test of adequacy or power calculations available to establish sample size in qualitative research”. However, Profetto- McGrath, Polit & Beck (2010) argue that a guiding principle in qualitative sampling is which is when sampling has reached a point where no new information is obtained from the research participants. Klenke (2008) adds that in qualitative research, sample size does matter but does not take the same importance as in quantitative research where large sample sizes are the drives of many statistical analyses such as factor analysis or linear structural equation modelling techniques and are needed to generalize from the sample to the underlying population. Klenke (2008) further adds that because in qualitative research, the researcher intentionally selects participants who can contribute an in-depth, information-rich understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. Therefore, does not require a large sample size.

The sample size for the research study was 11 young Xhosa homosexual men living in the Cape Metropole. These young men were selected based on the following selection criteria:

- Had to be Xhosa speaking men - Had to be homosexual

- Had to be between ages of 18-35 years old - Had to be living in the Cape Metropole - Had the knowledge of Ulwaluko

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The researcher also got an opportunity to interview one insider of the Ulwaluko rite as a key informant who was accessed through the snowball sampling method where participants were asked to suggest/refer an elder who was willing and available to share his insights on the topic. The elder stays in the same street as one of the participants which made it easy for the participant to initiate contact. However, when it came to the opportunity of interviewing him, it had to come with a lot of convincing as he was hesitant in sharing insight on the topic firstly, because he had to share the information with a female and secondly, a female who is not Xhosa. Before he agreed to be interviewed by the researcher, he had many concerns and questions which he wanted clarified about the research and the researcher and her interest in the research topic. These concerns will be highlighted in more detail in the data analysis. The researcher had to go through the ethical consideration with him, in addition to providing examples in a language that he could understand which was Xhosa.

Table 2: The following table provides a summary of the participants who were selected for

the study. (Note: Participants’ names were replaced with pseudonyms)

Pseudonym Age Area Area of circumcision Year of circumcision

Alex 32 Khayelitsha Eastern Cape 2002

Ben 35 Bellville East London 1997

Bongani 31 Philippi Eastern Cape 2001

Jake 29 Philippi Eastern Cape 2002

John 23 Bellville Eastern Cape 2008

Luzuko 28 Philippi Eastern Cape 2004

Mduduzo 27 Bellville Eastern Cape 2005

Mxolisi 23 Khayelitsha Eastern Cape 2008

Vuyo 30 Nyanga Eastern Cape 2002

Xoli 25 Nyanga Eastern Cape 2007

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Table 3: Key informant:

Pseudonym Age Area of practice Years of experience

Qamashe 72 Khayelitsha 25years