The analysis of the expert interviews produced a picture of the personal and situational variables, which the experts proposed contribute to the risk for overtraining. Three general dimensions emerged, representing processes related to risk for OT. The three dimensions of OT risk factors were a) Characteristics, behaviours, and experiences of the susceptible athlete, b) Situations, factors, or people that pressure athletes to increase training, and c) Situations, factors, or people that affect athletes’ needs for recovery. These three dimensions, along with the major categories, subcategories, and raw data themes, from which they were derived, are shown in Table 3, and are described in detail, along with supporting quotations, throughout this results section.
Table 3.
Personal and Situational Risk Factors for OT from Expert Interviews
Raw Data Themes Subcategories Major Categories General Dimensions
Obsessive commitment to training Obsessive-compulsive type characteristics Never satisfied with performance or training
Devastated if everything is not just right
Extreme perfectionist characteristics Extremely strong work ethic
Very high internal drive for success/high ego- involvement
Super-motivation; very high internal drive No other foci outside of sport
Fear of failure/combined with the need to prove oneself
Derives all self-worth from sport
Extremely high on athletic identity
May have significant underlying psychological issues Existence of psychopathology
Athlete character or personality factors
Younger athletes going through growth and development
Older athletes dealing with increased recovery needs
Increased OT risk related to age or developmental
stage of the athlete Exposure to, and evidence of, infection or virus
Nutrient deficiency Very low body fat
Factors related to compromised immune system function Athlete physical susceptibilities Characteristics, behaviours, and experiences of the susceptible athlete O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 103
Table 3. (continued)
Has a history of physical or emotional abuse Has a history of OT, health/illness issues, injury, and/or problems with sleep or other forms of recovery
Has experienced problematic health issues
Has talent/potential at young age
Accustomed to success in most areas of life Experiencing a peak in performance
Has been rewarded with success for pushing through pain or fatigue
Has experienced recent or previous successes or
performance peaks
Has little experience with elite level training, and may rely heavily on others for guidance Lacks social and institutional support
Lacks experience and/or suitable guidance or support
Athlete experiences
Athlete believes it is necessary to make up for any missed training or to get every single work out in without fail, regardless of the
circumstances
Believes in more is better approach or may express pride in doing extra
Beliefs or attitudes that extra training is the route to
success Lacks awareness or knowledge of sport science
concepts regarding training and recovery Does not believe in recovery days and does not factor them into a training schedule
Lacks knowledge or awareness regarding recovery processes
Athlete beliefs, attitudes, and expectations Characteristics, behaviours, and experiences of the susceptible athlete O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 104
Table 3. (continued)
Has unrealistic role models; compares self to others of different ability and even different physiology
Has unrealistic goals regarding performance (may be evidenced with sudden increases in performance expectations)
Has unrealistic expectations
Athlete beliefs, attitudes, and expectations
Trying to drop drastic amounts of weight to make limits for weight class sport
Disordered eating behaviours – trying to lose weight to satisfy body image issues or to gain a perceived advantage
Risky behaviours surrounding eating, nutrition, and weight loss Experiences guilt about missed or reduced
training and responds with doing extra
Will do more training that what is scheduled by the coach, and may not communicate about the extra training
Does not take enough recovery or comes back too early from injury or illness
Combining programs from multiple training sources to get the edge
May be observed to do extra in most things outside of sport as well (e.g., work, school)
Risky behaviours related to always doing more
Athlete behaviours Characteristics, behaviours, and experiences of the susceptible athlete O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 105
Table 3. (continued)
Coach is inexperienced/overenthusiastic Coach has experienced success with very high volume training or other risky practices, despite misinformed coaching practices or lack of knowledge
Coach is highly acclaimed and has a large pool of athletes from which to select
Factors related to coaching experiences in sport
Coach is under financial/career pressures Coach is under high pressure to make self look good (especially high profile coaches,
professional coaches)
External pressures on the coach Coach maintains a win at all costs attitude
Coach advocates very high volume training programs, based on more is better philosophy Coach has a short term focus on single
performances or results
Coach has an autocratic or non-communicative interpersonal style of coaching, especially problematic when combined with success
Coaching style or focus
Behaviours, attitudes, and experiences of coaches
Family and others reinforce more is better
work ethic and other OT behaviours
Family and others make approval contingent upon athlete’s successes or do not provide praise at all
Family and others that are very involved are totally success or achievement oriented
Parents’ and Others’
Reinforcement Behaviours Behaviours & attitudes of family and others
Situations, factors, or people that pressure
athletes to increase training O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 106
Table 3. (continued)
Family and others pursue financial gain from child’s athletic success
Parents have been or still are athletes and might live vicariously through child Family and others derive personal satisfaction or self-esteem from child’s performances
Parents & others seek financial or personal gain
Behaviours & attitudes of family and others
Athlete may feel pressured to live up to expectations implicit in signing a professional contract
Athlete may feel pressured to increase training or play injured to receive financial bonuses or prize money
There may be pressure applied by government and sports institutes in suggesting that sport funding is totally contingent on athletes’ successes
Pressures to gain financial reward or support
Lead up to major competition
Team selection time Timing or scheduling factors Sports where there is an emphasis on low
body fat or where weight limits are imposed Sports with very young athletes competing at elite level
Demands of sport related to weight and age
Specific sport factors
Situations, factors, or people that pressure
athletes to increase training O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 107
Table 3. (continued)
Sports with tough cultures – histories of excessive training
Large selection pool of high potential athletes
Pressured team-sport environment with constant comparison to others
Implicit demands of elite sport and having to learn one’s own limits
Factors related to the sport/training environment or
culture
Moving up levels or increasing commitment Coming back after a break or after
injury/illness
Coming to end of athletic career
Transitional factors
Specific sport factors
Cultures that reinforce or allow abusive dynamics between coaches and athletes Socio-cultural reinforcement for more is better attitudes
Media reinforcements for performing injured
Reinforcement for attitudes and beliefs supporting OT National/cultural pride & reward pressures Reward for pushing very hard
in training
Socio-cultural and political factors
Situations, factors, or people that pressure
athletes to increase training O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 108
Table 3. (continued)
Coach does not understand or acknowledge psychological &/or other stressors
Coach lacks leadership or initiative to alter training program or advise on recovery issues
Coach lacks sport science knowledge or other knowledge about training and recovery issues
Coach does not consider individual differences in physical or psychological resources and capabilities
Factors related to lack of knowledge, understanding, or
awareness
Coach reinforces silence regarding or does not communicate about injury, illness or fatigue issues
Coach pushes for early return from illness or injury
Coach endorses, supports, or does not intervene in, athlete’s drastic weight loss behaviours
Factors related to health issues
Behaviours & attitudes of coaches
Family and others ignore or deny
consequences of setbacks, such as injury or illness
Family and others assume athlete is balanced – or ignore life balance issues
Attitudes toward life balance and recovery
Behaviours & attitudes of family and others around athlete
Situations, factors, or people that affect athletes’ needs for
recovery O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 109
Table 3. (continued)
Family and others are anxious about athlete’s time off
Family and others push for early return from injury/illness
Factors related to health issues
Behaviours & attitudes of family and others around
athlete Training program lacks variety or is overly
repetitive
When there are many non-coordinated inputs regarding the athlete’s training needs and schedule Non-individualised training program
Training program that emphasises one area of training, to the exclusion of other important areas Multi-discipline sports training program that does not take into account recovery requirements of different disciplines
Training designed to maintain constant peaking in performance
Training program factors
Athlete has to work, in addition to training, to afford training and competition expenses Athlete misses out on sport science resources because of a lack of funding
Pressures from financial strain or lack of resources Lack of significant seasonal layoffs
High frequency of competitions
Sports with typically very high volume training Other sport-related factors
Specific sport factors
Situations, factors, or people that affect athletes’ needs for
recovery O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 110
Table 3. (continued)
Leaving home/changing environments, going to a bigger team
Travel/time zone changes
Changes in physical environment - weather, season, altitude
Stepping up training volume/intensity Going into a taper
Transitional factors Specific sport factors
School, university, study commitments Demands of being in or having a family Work commitments
Publicity/media commitments
Activities demanding time and/or emotional resources
Other life factors that interfere with recovery
Situations, factors, or people that affect athletes’ needs for
recovery O ve rtr aini ng P he nom ena 111
General Dimension 1: Characteristics, Behaviours, and Experiences of Susceptible Athletes
Looking at the types of athletes who are susceptible to overtraining, experts offered several opinions that related to General Dimension 1, the character or personality traits, past experiences, and observable behaviours that might contribute to overtraining and its outcomes. I imagine any athlete could fit into many of the categories depicted in Table 3, and could be described by several of the raw data themes classifying athletes at risk for OT; nonetheless, experts seemed to emphasise that athletes at risk are likely to be at the extremes of the character, experiential, and behavioural factors. General Dimension 1 comprises five major categories, which are (a) Athlete character or personality factors, (b) Athlete physical susceptibilities, c) Athlete experiences, (d) Athlete beliefs, attitudes, and expectations, and (e) Athlete behaviours. Some experts were careful to point out that athletes will overtrain for a variety of different reasons, and one must be cautious in describing trait-like characteristics related to OT risk. Nonetheless, there appear to be certain characteristics, histories of experiences, and patterns of behaviours, for athletes, which, when identified, might support coaches and others in optimally managing athletes’ training and recoveries, and, conceivably, reducing the risk of OT. The major categories of General Dimension 1 are addressed in the following sections.
Athlete Character or Personality Factors Contributing to Overtraining Risk
This major category includes descriptions of trait-like characteristics that might be observed in athletes who are at risk for OT. Although, experts pointed out that there is no specific profile of the OT athlete, they acknowledged that some character or personality traits might be associated with higher risk for OT. Within this major category, there were five subcategories, comprised of the following: a) Obsessive-compulsive characteristics, b) Extreme perfectionist characteristics, c) Super-motivation or extremely high internal drive,
d) Extremely high athletic identity, and e) Existence of psychopathology.
Obsessive-compulsive characteristics. Several experts reported that athletes at risk might exhibit obsessive personality characteristics. These athletes might be observed to be obsessed with gaining every little advantage from training, nutrition, or any other aspect of their lives, all the time, usually at the expense of living balanced lives and getting adequate recovery.
It’s sort of like they’re getting into an obsession and it’s not just with their physical training but where their sport seems to be taking up more of their time than it usually does, even though technically they are in good form for whatever time of the year they’re at.
Compulsive. It goes right along with compulsive behaviours, people who are really just compulsive and very meticulous about the things that they do. I think it tends towards that and compulsive definitely more than meticulous, because meticulous people can, if they are well instructed, can be quite safe.
Almost a compulsion to train hard and I guess based on the assumption that the harder I train the better I’ll perform. When in fact the harder he trained the worse he performed. He got past the point of no return I think.
Extreme perfectionist characteristics. Although it was noted that most athletes might be classified as perfectionists to some extent, experts reported that the athletes at risk for OT are likely to be on the extreme end of perfectionism, where they may never be satisfied with success, always demanding perfection. Such athletes may always compare themselves to the highest standard, even when the standard is unrealistic for their current levels of achievement.
I tried to help him through that, but it was almost impossible for that athlete, because of this fairly inflexible attitude towards doing it right… it’s certainly bordering on perfectionism.
At their peak they could never fully take responsibility for their performance. It was almost as though, “Well, it still wasn’t good enough. It wasn’t perfect. I need to strive harder.” Of course, in striving harder then they tip over the edge and fall into a deep trough.
One is the perfectionist . . . any kind of perfectionist characteristics, where the person that absolutely wants to get every single thing right and, often times, actually goes on the side of getting everything right plus a couple of extra percent.
So, certainly, the person who is very intent on doing everything right, doing every thing they possibly can in order to achieve.
It’s afraid of not keeping up, afraid of not making top marks, afraid of not being able to go on. Creates this perfectionist kind of, this compulsive perfectionism that drives people to do extra work, extra work, extra work, drives them to extremes. Super-motivation or extremely high internal drive. Although being driven or motivated would appear to be important factors in successful athletic performance, such characteristics, especially when manifested as extremes of behaviour, might also put athletes at risk for OT. Experts commented that some athletes at risk could be characterised by super-motivation or extremely high levels of internal drive. Athletes with such high levels of motivation or drive might tend to make decisions about training and recovery that increase the risk for OT.
There are people out there that are highly internally motivated, that have a huge need to achieve on a personal level and it has nothing to do with gold medals and has nothing to do with records and it has nothing to do with making teams. It is all about me testing myself out every single day. “Am I doing better today and
tomorrow?” So, high drive for internal success, prime candidates for overtraining. You know people who are driven, you know really driven to be the best, for
whatever reason, and, often times, there’s a tremendous amount of ego involvement in that. It’s very rare that you hear that person really expressing the artistry of the activity or anything else. They are driven purely on achievement. . . . Be the best because it’s a marker. . . . It’s the stuff you would consider on the ego side as opposed to mastery kinds of orientations.
The decisions about training and recovery, prompted by super-motivation, might be manifested in an athlete’s work ethic. Intuitively, work ethic seems to be a positive
characteristic, important for successful training and performance. Experts noted, however, that being aware of athletes with extremely strong work ethic might help identify the athlete at risk, especially since coaches might reinforce the extremes of work ethic.
I’d be looking at the other side of the work ethic and see how strong that is. And I don’t know whether anybody has ever really researched work ethic, but it is a thing that comes up in coaching a lot; they look for the people with great work ethic.
Extremely high athletic identity. Experts commented that the athletes at risk often have extremely high athletic identities, seeing themselves as nothing but athletes and not having any other things to focus on besides sport. Such athletes might not have
alternatives, besides their sports, to give them a sense of accomplishment, or to give them a sense of security in the event that their athletic career is cut short.
A lot of athletes see themselves as athletes and nothing else and they left school under difficult circumstances, either not having completed school, having left early, having been kicked out of school, whose life then, was very much dependent upon proving themselves to be of some worth and obviously not choosing school to do that through.
I guess from a personal perspective, I don’t know whether it’s a personal or situational, but what options are tied up in this athletic identity business - Do they have alternative career paths? I mean is their sport the only thing that they’ve got in their life? If it is, then you would predict that they’re going to push harder and