Several researchers have developed different models of stakeholders within the HE context which identifies who they are and their roles (Telford & Mason 2005; Baldwin, 2009; Nie & Bolton, 2010). Telford and Mason (2005) identified the majority of stakeholders in the HE sector as those who are associated with what the courses are designed to accomplish, the method in which they are delivered and supported, and the obligations of the different participants. Nie and Bolton (2010) identified the government, students, parents and industry itself as the major stakeholders of HE sector.
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The stakeholder model of the corporation, as proposed by Halal (1996), did not just identify who the important stakeholders were but it also established their rights to corporation as well as their responsibilities. The stakeholders identified in the corporation model include employees, suppliers, investors, the public, its government representatives and customers (Halal, 1996). Students, employees, parents and society are all considered as some of the numerous stakeholders of HE Institution (HEI’s), where students were identified as the most important amongst all stakeholders (Ahmed et al., 2010; Zeshen, 2010). Students as stakeholders in the HE sector are customers who should be seen and treated in the same way customers of firms in the manufacturing sector (Faganel, 2010). Different stakeholders which include students, families, employers, and society are all categorised as customers (Marzo- Navarro et al., 2005). The UK HE sector consists of several stakeholders. The students were identified by Baldwin (2009) as the major participants since they are the major consumers. Thus, this study will be identifying international students as the major stakeholder. Having identified who the stakeholders of HE marketing are and how students fit into the customer description, the next section will address and evaluate the role of students and address the arguments that they are both customers and consumers.
3.4.1 Students as Higher Education Customers
There is much debate both in academic literature and in HE marketing departments regarding the concept of student as a customer (Durkin, McKenna, & Cummins, 2013).
While using customer in this context, it becomes imperative to establish first the definition of a customer. Deming (1986) identified a customer as one who gets your work. Juran (1988) opined that anyone who the work impacts on is known as the customer. Corts (1992) however stated that everyone is a customer, where also everyone can serve as a customer. One who receives or benefits from the outcome of a work or one who purchases a product or service is a customer (Maguad, 2007). Customers were further categorised as either internal or external customers; where the internal customers are those who receive from within the organisation and their efforts serve as a contribution towards the activities and functions of other departments in the organisation. By comparison, external customers are those described as the end users who are not a part of the organisation which the organisation seeks to satisfy.
Having reviewed some definitions of the term customer it becomes important to determine who are referred to as ‘customers’ in the HE context so as to allow a proper understanding of the use of the term during this study. Several parties were classified by Weaver (1976) as potential customers in the HE sector. These are: (1) the Government; (2) teachers/academics;
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(3) its administrators; ; (4) the learners; (5) learners families; (6) employers; and (7) society as a whole. Kotler and Fox (1985) recognised employers as the customer and students as the raw materials and the graduate as the ‘product’. Conway et al. (1994 p.31) stated that, “...students can be either considered as customers (with courses as the HE products) or as products with the employers being the customers”.
Several other arguments and exchanges were developed while trying to determine how to consider students. In doing this, researchers have used several criteria to substantiate their claims (Cuthbert, 2010; Saunders, 2015). Fee payment was also used as criteria to determine students as a customer. It was argued that since students pay fees to purchase services that will enable them gain satisfaction they therefore should be seen as customers (Kanji & Tambi, 1999; Danjuma & Rasil, 2013). In this argument, the researchers are insisting that if students pay for the services, then they should be referred to and treated as customers. As a result students then expect good grades regardless of the efforts they put in (Clayson & Haley, 2005). Caru and Cova (2003) identified the student and HE relationship to that in which a consumer experience is created as a result of the financial exchange involved. Considering the student experience which is available in the HE sector, it is argued that students should be identified as consumers since they do not just participate in the student experience but they are also obliged financially. The ideology behind the fees paid gives entitlement to the degree (Naidoo & Jamieson, 2005). These researchers describe the financial exchange as purchase fee, where they should have full right to the product. Students see employability as a priority rather than becoming a scholar in the chosen course of study (Gibbs, 2001).
In classifying students, Sharrock (2000) and Cuthbert (2010) described students into the following exchange types;
i. Customer – the student as one who is knowledgeable, who pays to acquire customer- defined instructional services from the university system, who is an external customer.
ii. Client- the student as uninformed, paying to acquire expert guidance and instructional services from the university system.
iii. Citizen- the student as that who has certain rights within the university system as a co- member of the university.
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iv. Subject- the student is a subordinate of the hierarchy of the university. i.e. the student is a part of the hierarchy of the university.
Students were described by Mills (2007) as those who are perceived by Universities as customers even more than the way that government perceive them. He stresses on how universities try to satisfy them thereby putting the system under intense pressure in getting a balance between academic standard and customer satisfaction. Students should be identified as the customers as well as the product itself (Anctil, 2008).
Higher Education sector consists of several stakeholders. Telford and Mason (2005) identified the majority of stakeholders in the HE sector as those who are associated with what the courses are designed to accomplish, the method in which they are delivered and supported, and the obligation required of the different participants.
Maguad (2007) did not only identify students as customers, students were further described as the most important customer of the HE institutions. He further described students as beneficiaries who have needs to be satisfied. Twersky et al. (2013) also described students as beneficiaries who benefit directly from the quality of the system. Braxton (2010), described students as clients considering the teaching role performance of the faculty. Also, students are not seen as just individuals benefiting from public good, neither are they seen as actors of an academic process, but are rather seen as consumers or clients (Pitman, 2000; Sharrock, 2000; Morley 2003). Researchers however stressed that students unlike usual clients are not completely free to choose knowledge, especially as the output that comes from their choices does not always consist of all the operations within the HEI’s (Pitman, 2000; Sharrock, 2000; Newson, 2004). HE is acknowledged as a major service good in our present day environment, where also the students are seen as customers and clients (Meek & Wood, 1998; Moodie, 2001). Students were described as consumers by Kaye et al. (2009) who argued that students are concerned about acquiring tangible benefits from their studies and as such consider the employment aspects of their qualification. Manthorpe et al. (2010) state that students should not just be seen as customers, rather students should be seen as consumers. More HEI’s in recent times have changed their perceptions towards students where they are now seen and considered as clients or consumers (Cardoso et al., 2011).
The description of students goes beyond clients, customer, beneficiaries and consumer. Bay and Daniel (2001) stressed that student in the HE context should be perceived as a
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collaborative partner rather than as a customer. They argue that identifying students as a partner becomes easier to establish the relationship that exists between the institution and the student. An example of such is where the student has to either buy a living space or books from the book store within the facilities available at the campus. At other times the students becomes a learner or the product of the education itself.
There are contrary views as to the student being referred to as a consumer or customers. Barrett (1996) strongly disagrees that it is both disappointing and threatening that the marketing focus, clearly taken from business is now accepted in the HE sector. Also, faculties, administrators in the HE sector find it difficult to refer to student or anyone else as a customer neither considering them as customer driven (Lewis & Smith, 1994; Lomas, 2007). Where Canic and McCarthy (2000) stated that using the term customer to address students is likely to awaken many emotions, misconceptions and preconceptions. It has been realised from this section that addressing the student as customer has been established though this is seen as not appropriate by several authors. Especially as perceiving students as a customer is a natural consequence of attaching importance to HE marketing (Cuthbert, 2010). Emphasis was also placed on the financial exchange involved in the encounter between the student and the University as a basis for identifying students as customers. Regardless of the customer status of students, studies acknowledge the student as the most important in terms of the stakeholder model. Following these arguments reviewed above, this study will describe international students as unique customers with emphasis on their experience and not necessarily as customers are described in other service sector. The next section will be reviewing the specific students (international students both undergraduate and postgraduates) who are the focus of this study.