Oh amazingly they' re Talking about Hamlet Multiple Theme (Textual,
Interpersonal and Topical) Rheme Adjunct:
Continuity
Adjunct:
Comment Subject Finite Predicator Adjunct:
Circumstance
MOOD RESIDUE
9.2.2
Structural Cohesive Devices: Grammatical Parallelism
In this section we are concerned with Grammatical Parallelism, which will be dealt with in much more detail in your third year course. “Grammatical Parallelism” is an expression coined by Jakobson (1960) and specifically linked to one of his Functions of communication: the
‘poetic’ function as its “empirical linguistic criterion”.
So, Grammatical Parallelism is a fundamental feature of poetry, but not only, and consists in a regular reiteration of equivalent units – e.g. of sounds, syllables, words, groups, phrases, and clauses. These ‘recurrent returns’, as Jakobson calls them, are seen as calling forth a corresponding recurrence of sense. That is, grammatical parallelism is semantic parallelism of some sort.
(Jakobson 1960, 368-69). Grammatical Parallelism is not dissimilar to what Thompson (1996: 117-118) calls ‘grammatical repetition’. SFL (especially in the work of Hasan in Halliday and Hasan 1985/89) has incorporated Grammatical Parallelism into its description of structural cohesive devices. Since, at times, the phenomenon gives us more cohesion than what is strictly needed, we are required to examine its function. This aspect of the grammatics and semantics of Grammatical Parallelism will be further investigated in your third year course. Below is an example of Grammatical Parallelism, where all Themes are marked Themes of circumstance of Location:
Space.
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On the banks of the Arno River, Capocaccia is the trendiest bar in Florence for an American-style brunch on Sundays. At Piansa, travelers driving in and out of the highway entrance will love to taste one of the best coffees in town. Off of Piazza Santa Trinità is the beautiful store Pampaloni. Especially interesting and unique are the
“Bicchierografia”, glasses glazed in silver, originally designed in the 17th century and reproduced with exceptional craftsmanship.
Words in italics (glasses glazed) offer an example of reiteration of sounds through the phonemes /gl/
and /s/ and /z/, another example of grammatical parallelism. See the Carex advertisement (text 4) in Chapter 6 for a further example of grammatical parallelism. Below are two short separate extracts from the autobiography of Nelson Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, in which we have instances of grammatical parallelism at the word level, phrase level, and clause level.
Extract 1: Then I slowly saw that not only was I not free, but my brothers and sisters were not free. I saw that it was not just my freedom that was curtailed, but the freedom of everyone who looked like I did. That is when I joined the African National Congress, and that is when the hunger for my own freedom became the greater hunger for the freedom of my people. The chains on any one of my people were the chains on all of them, the chains on all of my people were the chains on me.
[…]
Extract 2: I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can rest only for a moment, for with freedom come responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended.
Word level: brothers and sisters, chains. Lexical scatter: freedom and free
Phrase level: Thing + PP as Qualifier: hunger for my own freedom, hunger for the freedom of my people; chains on …;
Clause level: In the first extract, there is a reiteration of mental Processes of perception (I saw) with Fact and a reiteration of relational processes of identity with extended NGs (Identifier/Pr.:
rel/Identified). In the case of the reiteration of mental Processes of perception (Senser/Pr.: mental /Fact), note that both Facts contain not only/but or not just /but extension of the clauses (with reiteration of relational processes attributive was not free, were not free). The but and only are reiterated again in the second extract.
In the second extract there is the pattern of material Processes (walked, falter and made) with a reiteration of the tense (in this case pertinent to the idea of Mandela’s struggle) followed by the reiteration of two mental Processes (discovered and finds): I have walked, I have tried, I have made, I have discovered and one finds, I have taken. There is a reiteration in the expansion as well: to steal a view, to look back on. ; for with freedom, for my long walk.
This has been a brief introduction to the notion of grammatical parallelism, which will be explored in further detail in the third year course.
(Acknowlegements to J.R. Martin for his thorough and fascinating analysis of “Long Walk to Freedom”. See Martin 1999 and Martin and Rose 2003: ch. 7. Acknowledgements also to M.
Ghadessy, who presented a longer extract in a study on the loss of grammatical parallelism in translation, “Textual Parallelism in Parallel Texts”, ISFC, Liverpool, 2002 and )
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9.2.3 Thematic Progression and Thematic Drift
What is the usefulness of the analysis of Theme? “The thematic organization of the clauses (and clause complexes, where relevant) is the most significant factor in the development of the text” . (Halliday 1994: 67). The thematic structure of a text provides “signposts” to help readers and addressees follow the development of the text (Butt et. al. 2000: 142). Theme reflects what the writer chooses to talk about, what is set up for the reader as background information or familiar. Thematic analysis also tells us something about the transparency of the text’s design and how well the text maker anticipates the needs of the reader.
Thematic progression refers to how cohesion is created by placing “elements from the Rheme of one clause into the Theme of the next, or by repeating meanings from the Theme of one clause in the Theme of subsequent clauses” (Butt et.al. 200:142).
Thematic drift refers to the accumulated meanings emerging as overall patterns in a text (Butt et al.: 144). In SFL, this is also known as a form of semantic prosody. By examining sequential and cumulative patterns of Theme (the choices writers make in selecting an item as Theme), we can often discover the degree to which the messages mesh with an overarching purpose or concern.
Understanding thematic structure helps writers also construct their own texts. Students can use the technique to ensure that TTs progress in an orderly and even ‘predictable’ way. Students should also try to make sure Textual Themes are functioning to make logical connections between clauses clear.
Thematic progression can be very straightforward: either parallel progression (or Constant Progression, see Bloor and Bloor 1995: 90), in that the Theme of each clause links to the Theme in the next clause or linear progression, in that the Rheme of one clause links to the Theme of the next, and so on. There is also the split Rheme pattern, which is a third common type of thematic progression. This is when the Rheme of a clause has two components, each of which is taken in turn as the Theme of a subsequent clause (Bloor and Bloor 1995: 91). For further information on Theme patterns see Bloor and Bloor 1995: 90- 94.
This is not to say there is only a limited choice of thematic patterns. As Halliday explains, “the speaker can exploit the potential that the situation defines, using thematic and information structures to produce an astonishing variety of rhetorical effects. He can play with the system.” (1994: 300).
Here Halliday is also referring to the various types of Themes one can choose (predicated Themes, marked Themes, etc).
However, thematic choices in a text should not be totally unexpected, i.e. Themes should be connected with ideas already met in the Theme or Rheme of a clause not too far away. Writers may put elements from the Rheme of one clause into the Theme of the next, or they may repeat elements from the Theme of one clause in the Theme of following clauses. When writing, students should try to construct a clear progression: even though unexpected thematic development is part of
‘creative’ writing, expository or persuasive texts, e.g., need to be well constructed and thematically coherent.
Below are examples of Parallel (constant) Theme progression (1), Linear Theme progression (2), and a Split Rheme pattern (3).
(1) Protein, next to water, is the most plentiful substance in the body. Protein is one of the most important elements for the maintenance of good health and vitality and is of primary importance in the growth and development of all body tissues. It is the major source of building material for muscles, blood, skin, hair, nails, and internal organs, including the heart and the brain. Protein is needed for the formation of hormones which control a variety of body functions such as growth, sexual development, and rate of metabolism.
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(2) One of the fastest growing plagues of the modern world is osteoarthritis. It is an ugly disease that causes pain ranging from mild to severe. The pain and suffering can become so intolerable for most victims. They should expect more than what mainstream medicine has to offer.
(3) Well, Mrs. Moss, I think you should avoid sleeping pills if you can. You may come to rely on them completely and find it impossible to sleep without them.
I’d suggest some other remedies, perhaps very obvious ones. Drinking herb tea, like camomile, before you go to bed is one. This can help you relax.
Listening to music or reading is another. If neither of these work, an alternative approach is to be as active as possible during the evening. Go out and do something so that you are really tired when you go to bed. (adapted from health magazine, adapted from Lipson Exploring Functional Grammar, A. A. 2001-02)
TASK 7:In the text below, identify Themes. How are they connected to elements in the text? What is the thematic progression? 9
It’s easy. It’s cheap. It’s convenient, and it’s a good way of meeting people. It simply involves standing by a road and sticking out your thumb. Every day, hundreds of people in Ireland hitch lifts. It is a frequent method of getting around, especially in rural areas where there is little danger, since people often know those offering them a lift.
But hitch-hiking can be risky.
(adaped from text in Landmark: Upper Intermediate Student’s Book, OUP) TASK 8:Analyze thematic progression (text from Butt et.al, 1995, pg. 60):
Traumatic inflammation of the stomach results from the presence of a foreign body. This condition is not rare in cattle, because these animals have the habit of swallowing their feed without careful chewing, and so nails, screws, hairpins, ends of wire, and other metal objects may be swallowed unconsciously. Such objects gravitate to the second stomach where they may be caught in the folds of the lining mucous membrane, and in some instances the wall of this organ is perforated. From this accident, chronic indigestion results. The symptoms include pain when getting up or lying down, pain when moving suddenly, and coughing.
9.3 Non-Structural Cohesive Devices
10In this section there is a review of non-structural resources for organizing discourse. Students should review their first year course-book , sec 5.2.
9 This text was analysed for Field, Tenor and Mode, in a dissertation entitled, La grammatica funzionale e suoi risvolti didattici per la comprensione del testo scritto, presented by Lucia Degli Esposti, Thesis supervisor, M. Lipson, co-advisor, D.R. Miller, A.A. 2002-2003, Facoltà di L.L.S. , Università di Bologna
10 This section, explanations and examples, has been broadly based on Halliday and Hasan, 1976, Halliday 1994 and Toolan 1998.
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The expression of the unit of meaning lies in the cohesion among the sentences.
Any piece of language that has a meaning as a whole in some context, whether spoken or written, formal or colloquial, or journalistic or academic, etc., has cohesive elements tying the discourse together.
Cohesion gives a sense of continuity. Sentences are linked to others throughout discourse to help readers understand the text. Understanding the role of cohesive elements will improve ones’
reading and writing skills. The following types of cohesion devices discussed in this section are:
1. reference
1. exophoric and endophoric references.
1. homophoric reference
2. anaphoric and cataphoric references 2. ellipsis and substitution
3. conjunction
1. Conjunctive Adjuncts and conjunctions 4. lexical cohesion
1. hyponymy 2. meronymy 3. collocation 1. Reference
As you know, exophoric references point outside of the text and endophoric references point in the text. Homophoric reference is a sub-category of exophoric which refers to only one possible referent. Example (1a) is an instance of homophoric reference: there is only one moon which would make sense to the listener: the Earth’s moon.
1a. Did you see the eclipse of the moon last night?
Examples (1b) and (1c) below are instances of exophoric and endophoric reference respectively.
In (1b), “I” is an exophoric reference. The listener knows from the context of situation who “I” is referring to. In (1c) “It” is an endophoric reference pointing backwards in the text to “car”. and is thus an anaphoric reference.
1b. I have a car that hates winter. 1c. I have a car. It hates winter.
In the text below, the pronoun they points forward and is thus a cataphoric reference to the unemployed American workers.
They are sometimes black, but more often white;
traditionally male, but increasingly female, frequently teenagers, but usually adults. They might be autoworkers from Detroit or clerks laid off a by a Chicago plastics company with weakening orders.
They are, in all their faces and feelings, the unemployed American workers of 1980. (from Time Magazine in M. Lipson 1981: 50)
With exophoric references it is the reader who has to decipher its meaning. The meaning lies in the environment or situation of the text. Often in advertising, the use of the personal pronouns you
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or he, she and we are used. Understanding these references requires an understanding of the cultural context of the text. In the Carex advertisement, page 47, the you is recoverable from the cultural context which the reader understands: it is you, the Mother.
In the same advertisement, the pronoun he refers to the picture of the boy in the ad. This could be considered therefore an endophoric reference, in that it is recoverable in the text. Actually, we might consider this pronoun both endophoric and exophoric, because while it has a visual reference in the text, it also relates to the reader’s own conceptual reference of a baby boy.
2. Ellipsis and Substitution
Ellipsis is when we “presuppose something by means of what is left out” (Halliday 1994: 316).
Unlike reference, the relationship that is set up is “not semantic but lexico-grammatical – a relationship in the wording rather than directly in the meaning” (Halliday 1994: 316). Ellipsis means that “continuity is established by means of leaving out given information: a clause or a part of a clause can be omitted or substituted.” (Freddi 2004 slide 219 our emphasis) In the first case, the cohesion device is ellipsis and in the second it is substitution. Ellipsis-substitution means, says Halliday: “‘go back and retrieve the missing words’. Hence the missing words must be grammatically appropriate” (Halliday 1994: 322); this is not the case with reference..
Examples (2a) and (2b) are instances of ellipsis and substitution respectively.
2a. “Did he get back yet?”
“He must have.” (“got back” is understood, but not stated)
2b. “I like your Compaq Pocket PC. I think I’ll buy one.” (“one” substitutes Compaq Pocket PC)
3. Conjunction
Here, as you know, we are dealing with how logical semantic relationships between clauses are constructed through Conjunctive Adjuncts - AG or PP - or one of a small group of conjunctions - typically and, or, nor but, yet, so, and then at the beginning of a sentence (Halliday 1994: 324).
Conjunctive Adjuncts, such as although, as a result, furthermore, accordingly, besides, etc., differ from other cohesive relations such as substitution or reference because they not only help the reader predict the discourse that follows by linking up with preceding text, but they also express particular meanings. These set up logico-semantic relationships of elaboration, extension and enhancement. (categories and examples based on Halliday 1994: 324-325)
1. Elaboration: apposition: they can exemplify, represent some information, e.g.: in other words, that is to say, for example, for instance, to illustrate etc.
clarification: they can clarify information e.g.: in particular, in short, to sum up, actually, in fact etc.
2. Extension: addition: they can add information, e.g.: moreover, in addition, on the other hand, however, on the contrary, except for that, alternatively.
adversative: they can add on adversative information, e.g.: but.
variation: these include ‘replacives’ and subtractives’ and ‘alternatives’: instead, except, and alternatively
3. Enhancement: They create adhesion concerning time, manner, cause, matter, etc.
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spatio-temporal: – here and there, metaphorically also – in the first place (spatial metaphor). The temporal conjunction covers the following relations:
(i) simple
a. following - then, next, afterwards
b. simultaneous – just, then, at the same time c. preceding – before that, previously
d. conclusive – in the end, finally
e. simple internal – parallel to simple: likewise, similarly, in a different way (ii) complex
a. immediate – at once, b. interrupted – soon c. repetitive – next time
d. specific – next day, an hour later, that morning e. durative – meanwhile, all that time
f. terminal – until then , g. punctiliar – at this moment
Manner – likewise, similarly in a different way Means - thus, thereby,
Relation of cause – so, then, therefore, consequently, hence, in consequence, as a result
Matter – cohesion is established by reference to the ‘matter’ that has gone before – here, there, as to that, in that respect. Many expressions of matter are spatial metaphors – involving words like point, ground .
4. Lexical Cohesion
With lexical cohesion we are concerned with cohesion achieved through vocabulary selection: repetition (the repetition of the same word), synonymy (which includes hyponymy and meronymy) and collocation.
In the text below, there are examples of cohesion through repetition of plastic, package and packaging (lexical scatter):
An Alternative to Plastic I
Italians have managed to make a revolutionary new material that should replace plastic. Environmentalists argue that we desperately need to find eco-friendly alternatives to plastic packages. Every year we produce and throw away huge amounts of plastic packaging. Greens despise plastic waste with particular passion.
IHT, Nov. 2002
Synonymy means that a lexical item has some kind of similar sense to another item. Hyponymy and meronymy are two different ways in which lexical items may relate to one another.
By hyponymy we are referring to the specific-general (superordinate and instances of) relationship, as in the relationship between chair and sofa, which are both kinds of furniture
(Halliday 1994: 332). ‘Furniture’ would be the superordinate and ‘chair’ and ‘sofa’ the instances.
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By meronymy, we are referring to the relationship of part-whole (Halliday 1994: 332), the
relationship among parts of the something else (co-hyponyms), such as in the example of stomach, colon, intestine, liver, pancreas, etc. which are all parts of the digestive system.
In the following text, there are examples of meronymy and hyponymy:
Well, Mrs. Moss, I think you should avoid sleeping pills if you can. You may come to rely on them completely and find it impossible to sleep without them. I’d suggest some other remedies, perhaps very obvious ones. Have you tried drinking herb tea, like camomile, before you go to bed? This can help you relax. You could also try listening to music or reading.
Drinking, listening and reading are instances of textually-created meronymy: they are co-hyponyms (parts) of ‘remedies’(the whole); herb tea and camomile are instances of hyponymy (herb tea is superordinate of camomile)
The last non-structural cohesion device in this category is collocation: the tendency for words to co-occur. Collocation is lexical cohesion which depends on a particular association between the
The last non-structural cohesion device in this category is collocation: the tendency for words to co-occur. Collocation is lexical cohesion which depends on a particular association between the