Structural model

Until 1973, IT adoption studies had considered the individual as the main unit of analysis. Zaltman et al. (1973) expanded this view from an individual level of analysis to an organisation as the main unit of adoption. They used the process approach to explain IT adoption. According to this approach, IT adoption is composed of a set of stages or phases ordered along the temporal dimensions of their anticipated sequence. However, they emphasised that IT adoption should be viewed as involving an interrelated and complex set of forces that shift over time. This view draws the attention towards considering IT adoption as a collective process starting with a knowledge- awareness sub-stage and ending with continued-sustained adoption (Zaltman et al. 1973). Rogers (1995) supports this argument claiming that the IT adoption process involves five steps that usually occur in a time-ordered sequence of; knowledge, persuasion, decision, deployment and confirmation. This classification is emphasised by Dasgupta (1997) who views IT adoption as a collective process which involves introduction, assimilation and permeation of information systems technology throughout an organisation.

McFarlan et al. (1982) proposed an IT adoption procedural model which includes the following four steps.

1- Technology identification and investment which include learning the application of new technology.

2- Experimentation, learning and adaptation which include user's awareness of the new technology and the problems it can solve.

3- Rationalisation and management control which include up-grading staff to acceptable knowledge levels that enable them to work with technology and control it.

4- Widespread technology transfer which includes spreading the benefits of technology into other units.

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This model depends largely on experimentation as a way to achieve a successful IT adoption process. This increases the cost of IT adoption. In addition, it starts with technology identification as the first stage in the IT adoption process without considering some human aspects such as the perception of organisational management and technical skills among users of the new technology. This can lead to the failure of the IT adoption process.

Cooper & Zmud (1990) present an IT adoption perspective model. According to this model, the adoption of IT starts first when there is a pressure to change (initiation stage). This pressure leads the managers of organisation to make decisions to adapt this change (adoption stage) through development, installation and maintenance of new technology and the development of new organisational procedures (adaptation stage). If users accept this technology (acceptance stage), it becomes a normal activity (routinisation stage). The final stage of IT adoption process according to this model is the infusion stage which includes the integration of new IT with the organisation's systems to support higher levels of organisational work. This model is more comprehensive than previous models and considers all stages that are necessary to the success of the IT and DM adoption process. It also considers the partial deployment of new technology as a way to enhance the IT and DM adoption process. However, the user acceptance of the new technology should be considered before the adoption process, which includes development, installation and maintenance of new technology. This can ease the adoption process through giving the users the opportunity to contribute to this process. It also can reduce the cost of IT and DM adoption through supporting the decision- making process and reducing the users' resistance to the new arrangements that may be introduced as a result of the adoption of new technology.

According to Rogers (1995), the IT adoption process within the organisation consists of two phases including initiation and implementation and the usual sequence of five stages (Figure 2.4). The wide distribution of technological innovation can be the best example to explain the processes of redefining innovation and restructuring of an organisation

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where any computerised system is defined or, in most cases, designed to match the organisational requirements (Davis 1993; Rogers 1995).

Figure ‎2.4: Organisational innovation process, Rogers 1995: p392

The innovation process in an organisation

As the process of IT and DM adoption goes on, uncertainty that surrounded the new innovation will be reduced through the establishment of general understanding of this innovation. Appropriate social construction and organisational support are needed to improve this process. When all the questions about the innovation are clarified, innovation becomes the norm and is incorporated into the common organisational routine.

It is observed that the structural model of IT adoption has been used to describe the adoption of IT as a programmed process which follows certain steps. This view provides limited insights as no consideration is given to social aspects of organisations and the important inter-correlations processes which take place prior to adoption. One of the major limitations of classical IT adoption theory, which represents the structural model, is the assumption that individuals adopt IT for their own independent use rather than as a

General organisational problems that may create a perceived need for innovation

Fitting a problem from the organisa-

ation’s agenda with an innovation.

The innovation is modified and re- invented to fit the organisation, orga- nasational structure

are alerted.

The relationship between the org-

anisation and innovation is defined more clearly. The innovation becomes an ongoing element in the organisation’s activities and loses

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part of a larger community of interdependent users (Auer & Ruohonen 1996). Therefore, the influence of each organisational group on others has to be considered. As managers are the power holders and the most dominant group on the organisational activities and its members' behaviour, their behaviour and perception with respect to IT and DM adoption should be considered and investigated. This provides a reliable indication of organisational innovativeness and readiness for IT and DM adoption.

Moreover, viewing the IT adoption process as a set of structured procedures that occur within a social system ignores the basic concept of IT adoption as a changing element that affects the social system of a particular context. Successful IT and DM adoption should investigate and consider the varying social elements of this complex and diversifying context. The socio-technical model was an attempt to cover this gap.