& Ramprasad Das
†Abstract
Social movement is one of the major forms of collective behavior. In recent years, the study on social movements has attracted the attention of a large number of people not only in India but also in the West. We hear various kinds of social movements like women’s movements, environmental movement, human rights movements, etc. launched for one or the other backward people. These movements are of immense significance firstly because it helps to understand the issue; secondly it plays a positive role in reforming or enacting laws to overcoming the existing problems.
Keywords: social movements, collective behavior
Introduction
Horton & Hunt (2006) defined “a social movement is a collective effort to promote or resist change”. According to Smelser, Neil (1993), “social movement can be defined as organized group effort to generate or resist social change”. M.S.A. Rao (2009), one of the Indian Sociologists, has made a mention of nature of social movement in the book ‘Social Movements in India’. According to him, social movements include two characteristics. They are as follows:
1. Collective Action: Social movements undoubtedly involve collective action. However, the collective action takes the form of a social movement only when it is sustained for a long time. This collective action need not be formally organized. It could be informal attempts also. But it should be able to create an interest and awakening in relatively large number of people.
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* Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, Birbhum-73136. E-mail: [email protected]
† Associate Professors, Department of Social Work, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan, ISSN 2229 6468
2. Social Change: Social movements are generally oriented towards bringing about social change. This change either is partial or total.
Though academicians are almost agreeable on the above mentioned two characteristics of social movements but they differ a lot regarding other criteria, such as presence of an ideology, organizational framework, etc. One important component of social movement is that presence of an ideology behind the movement, which distinguishes it from general category of collective mobilization. For example, a student strike involves collective mobilization and organized towards change but in the absence of an ideology a student strike movement becomes an isolated event and not a social movement. Secondly, social movement requires minimum organizational framework to achieve success or at least to maintain the tempo of the movement. It is necessary because there is a need to make a clear distinction between the leaders and followers, to define purpose of the movement, to pursue people to take a part in it or to support it, to adopt different techniques to achieve the goal. Thirdly, social movement needs to adopt its own techniques or method to achieve its goal. It may follow peaceful or conflicting violence or non-violent, compulsive or democratic or undemocratic means or methods to reach its goal.
Condition of a Successful Movement
All social movements do not become successful in achieving its target. A Sociologist Abel (1937) has spoken some conditions which, if contribute, would tend to success of the movement.
• Many individuals must experience the events, which are perceived as threat.
• The reaction of the event must be strong and presence of emotional dissatisfaction.
• The movement must include value orientation.
• There must be some object which becomes the focus of dissatisfaction and oppression for perusing the movement. • The legal position should be strong enough to continue
movement.
Types of Social Movement
Sociologists classify social movement into different types. They are described as below (Rao: 2009; http://www.sociologyguide.com/ social-change/social-movements-type.php):
1. Reform Movement: Reform movement are satisfied with the existing social order but believe that certain reforms are necessary in some specific areas. The reformers endeavour to change elements of the system as it currently stands. Example, the movements like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj. 2. Revolutionary Movement: These categories of movements are
deeply dissatisfied with social order and work for social change. They advocate replacing the entire existing structure. The objective of this type of movements is the recognition of society in accordance with their ideological blueprint. Example, Indian National Movement, the Communist Revolution in Russia and so on.
3. Reactionary or Revivalist Movement: They highlight the importance and greatness of traditional values, ideologies and institutional arrangements. They strongly criticise the fast moving changes of the present. Example, Sarvodaya Movement, Khadi & Gramodyoj movement of Gandhiji.
4. Resistance Movement: These movements are formed to resist a change that is already taking place in society. It is disturbing to many Indians who feel that our national virtues, traditional value and cultural greatness are eroded by secularizing moral degradation. Example, Anti-abortion movement, Anti-reservation movement, Anti-Hindi movement, etc. This type of movement is not very much revolutionary in character but more resistance in nature.
5. Migratory Movement: Migratory movements take place when a large number of people leave one country or place and settled in some other place. Mere migration does not mean migratory movement. There is a migratory social movement only when there is a common focus of discontent, shared purpose and hope for the future and a widely shared decision to move to a new location. The movement of Jews to Israel was a migratory movement. Likewise, Kashmiri Brahmins migration to Delhi or the Bengalese speaking person from Bangaledesh flew in some Sukumar Pal & Ramprasad Das
other countries like India can be termed as migratory movement. 6. Utopian Movement: The ideals and means are often vague, but many of such movements have still specific programmes for social change, establishment of Ramrajya as envision by Sanghaparivar in India, Socialist and Communist Movement towards pronouncement of casteless society from exploitation.
Analysis of Social Movements in India
We would apprise some of the major social movement in India. A mentioned could be made here that the Indian society for centuries has been suffering from so many social evils. The chief among them are caste system, child marriage, low status of women, sati, polygamy, dowry system, etc. Many Indian began to realize that social and religious reforms are essential part for overcoming such problems. The backwardness of Indian society made a deep impression on the rational thinkers and religious and social reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda Saraswati, etc. So, let us now analyse some of the social movements in India.
Social Reform Movements
A social reform movement is essentially the products of renaissance & intellectual awakening. The thinkers were educated in the west, which gave them opportunity to compare their own thought and social institutions with the thought and social institution of the west. Therefore, they felt the urgent need for social reform. Socio-political factors like western education, rise of nationalism, growth of religious literature, emergence of national congress, social legislations brought new awakening. This awakening resulted several social and political reform movements. The broad aims in the social spheres were caste reform, improvement of rights and status of women. The religious movements also involved an attack on certain institutions and practices like child marriage, sati, treatment of widows, and denial of women right to property. The most important of these movements that developed within Hinduism were Arya Samaj, the Parthana Samaj and Brahmo Samaj.
Brahmo Samj: Raja Rammohan Roy is considered as the father of Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 4 (1 & 2), 2013
modern India. As a social reformer he denounced the abuses of caste, the practice of sati etc. He launched a reform movement in 1828 which came to be known as Brahmo Samaj. Its purpose was to purify Hinduism and to preach belief in God. The movement was based on twin pillars of Vedas & Upanishads. It emphasized on human dignity, idolatry and criticized practices of social evils like sati and untouchability. Brahmo Samaj under the leadership of Rammohan Roy organized agitations against sati. He could convince the Governor General William Bentinck to pass a legislation banning practice of sati. The Brahmo Samaj was also successful in bringing about general upliftment of women including widow remarriage and abolition of sati. He was one of the earliest propagators of modern education and pioneer of Indian journalism and used press as a media for dissemination of modern ideas. He opposed the rigid caste system and practices of child marriage. He founded the Hindu college in 1816, the first academic institution of western learning. He used various techniques like social action and social advocacy for abolition of social evils. His work was particularly aimed at empowerment of widows, removal of social evils, which are still now important goals before Indian social thinkers.
Arya Samaj: The movement was founded in Bombay in 1875 by Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Its primary aim was to reform Hindu religion in northern India. The movement was revivalist in character because it drew its inspiration from the Vedas, which were regarded as infallible and as a foundation of all knowledge. Thus Swami Dayananda sought to reform Hindu religion by liberating it from the hold of ignorant priests and gave the call of going back to Vedas. It proposed a programme of social reform and it stood, however, in the four fold Varna system, which in according to their opinion has to be determined by merit and not by birth. They stood for equal rights of men and women in social and educational matter. They opposed untouchability, caste discrimination and supported widow remarriage. They made network of schools and colleges for both boys and girls where education was imparted in mother tongue. Ramkrishna Mission: It was founded by Swami Vivekananda in the year 1887 in the memory of his teacher and Guru Ramakrishna Sukumar Pal & Ramprasad Das
Paramhansa. He propounded the teaching of his Guru and made him known to all over the world. He demonstrated the greatness of the Hindu religion to the west, denounced the untouchability and advocated for mass upliftment. The mission has a network of its centers all over the world. The head quarters of Ramakrishna Math and Mission are Belur, near Kolkata. It is one of the important social reform institutions and runs a number of schools, hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages and welfare centers, helping the poor and afflicted in times of distress and natural calamity. Millions of women and men suffering from problems have been helped by the Mission. It has always worked for the rehabilitation of the weaker sections of the society particularly the orphans, widows, destitute and organized various schools, hospitals and orphanages for providing various curable and preventive services.
Satyashodak Movement: It was founded by Jyotiba or Jotirao Govindrao Phule on 24th September 1873, a low caste from Maharashtra who being aware of the degraded position of the untouchables and non-brahmins waged a life long struggle against upper caste domination and Brahmanical supremacy. It was a powerful movement and had challenged the supremacy of Brahmins. He founded the Satyashoddhak Samaj to carry out crusade against the Brahmin hegemony. It had also taken action for women’s liberation, propagating women’s education and economic betterment. He opened the school for untouchables and also had started private orphanages to help widows. It has preached for empowerment of the weaker sections of the society particularly scheduled castes. Peasant Movement: Peasant movement is defined by Kathleen Gough (1974) as an attempt of a group to effect change in the face of resistance and the peasant are people who are engaged in an agricultural or related production with primitive means who surrender part of their or its equivalent to landlords. The history of peasant movements can be traced back to colonial period when repressive economic policies, the new land revenue system, the colonial administrative and judicial system and the ruin of handicrafts leading to the overcrowding of land transformed the agrarian structure and impoverished the peasantry. In the Zamindari system peasants were Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 4 (1 & 2), 2013
left to the mercy of the Zamindars who exploited them in form of illegal dues. The British government levied heavy land revenue in the Ryotwari areas. Peasants were forced to borrow money from the moneylenders and they were reduced to the status of tenants at will, share croppers and landless laborers while their lands, crops and cattle passed into the hands to landlords, trader moneylenders and such peasants. When the peasants could take it no longer they resisted against the oppression and exploitation through uprisings. Peasant Movements occupy an important place in the history of social unrest in India though the aims and objectives of these movements differ in nature and degree from region to region. It is in this sense that these movements also aimed at the unification of the peasants of a region, development of leadership, ideology and a peasant elite. Through these movements emerged a new power structure and peasant alliance. The genesis of peasant movements rest in the relationship patterns of different social categories existing within the framework of feudal and semi feudal structure of our society. In the post Independence period the nature and objectives of the peasant movement have changed in getting remunerative prices for agricultural produce, to increase agricultural production, to establish parity between prices of agricultural produce and industrial goods and to get minimum wages for the agricultural labourers (Sebasti Raj & A Chowdhury 1998).
Some important peasant uprising movements are given below: http://www.sociologyguide.com/social-change/social-movements- type.php) 1770- Sanyasi rebellion 1831- Wahabi uprising 1855- Santhal uprising 1859- Indigo revolt
1890-1900- Punjab Kisan struggle 1917-18- Champaran satyagraha 1921- Moplah rebellion
1928- Bardoli satyagarya 1946- Telangana movement 1957- Naxalbai movement
Backward Class Movement
Backward Class consists of the lower castes of Hindus. Many social movements among scheduled castes and other backward classes have emerged in 19th century and 20th century. The role of Christian Missionaries in promoting education and conversion among the lower castes and the growth of various socio-religious reform movement among the Hindus accelerated the growth and awareness against the lower castes against Brahminical domination and oppressive nature of caste system in Indian society. These factors were responsible to the emergence of various backward class movements in early 20th century. The British Government also supported to such movements in order to weaken the freedom struggle. Some of the important Backward Classes movement which grew were Mahar Movement, SNDP Movement & Dravidian Movement.
Mahar Movement: Mahars were traditionally considered as untouchables. Normally they were allocated menial tasks like sweeping, digging graves, removing dead animals, cutting woods and playing music on ceremonial occasion in the village. They were denied access to civic amenities like wells, schools and even services of Brahmins and Barbars. In early 20th century the Mahars started organizing themselves to fight against discrimination. They held conferences and insisted on recruitment to military & police services. They were helped by the leaders of non-Brahmin movement in Maharashtra specially by the Depressed Class Mission (1906) established by V. R. Shinde. The Mission started separate schools and hostels for the Mahars. The effort made by Mahatma Gandhi for the abolition of untouchability and overall impact of freedom struggle created new social awakening among them. Later on, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar provided a new momentum and a radical turn to the Mahar Movement. He adopted aggressive protest and resorted to the political action. He demanded separate electorate for the Harijon and during late 1920s several satyagrahs were held for gaining entry into Hindu temples and Manusmritis were burnt to show their indignation to their orthodox Hindus. Ambedkar was the main architect of our constitution, who included various constitutional provisions for the welfare of untouchables including policies of reservations. Later on Ambedkar persuaded the Mahar to adopt Journal of Social Work and Social Development, 4 (1 & 2), 2013
Buddhism as it was based on egalitarian ideology. They had organized several schools and hostels for the education of the untouchables for their empowerment.
SNDP Movement (Sri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Movement) is a fine example of a regional movement. It pertains to the Ezhavas of Kerala who were untouchables. It is an example of conflict between the depressed class and upper non-Brahmin caste. The Ezhavas were a caste of toddy trappers in Kerala. As they were untouchable caste and they had to stay away 34 feet from the Namboodris Brahmins. They suffered from many others disabilities both social and ritual. They were denied access to Hindu temples or to the bathing tanks of caste Hindus. Their women were not allowed to cover their breasts or to wear any foot wear.
Under the leadership of Narayan Guru they rejected Brahminical domination and develop new ideology. According to MSA Rao, they adopted the strategy of withdrawal & self-organization. The new ideology was based on self respect, honour and worth of individual. It was an ideology of protest against upper caste value system of hierarchy and pollution. Narayan Guru established a parallel source of legitimacy by establishing new institution like temples, priests, monks and monasteries. It took several issues including the right of admission to schools, recruitment to government employment, entry into temple, roads and political representation. It is one of most successful attempts of the untouchable castes to alter the traditional power structure. They had been able to organize community through social action and were able to raise status. Dravidian Movement: The spread of Christianity and western education generated awareness among non-Brahmins in the Madras presidency region and as a result, resentment started among them against domination of Brahmins and other higher castes. The year 1914 witnessed a serious conflict between Brahmin and non- Brahmins (NB). The members of NB united themselves and NB Manifesto was published in 1916 followed by formation of South Indian Association and later on converted into Justice Party to counter the political influence of congress. Soon after the self respect movement was founded in 1925 by E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker, Sukumar Pal & Ramprasad Das
who is also known as Periyar. It was an anti-Brahmin movement. Periyar joined hand with anti-Brahmin movement. The self respect movement was an ideology to save the non-Brahmin. His journal Kudi Arasu and his movement progressed by advocating wedding without Brahmin priests, forcibly entry into temple, the burning of Manusmriti, etc. In fact he tried to provide umbrella to all non-