The greatest part of the above literature has been dedicated to EI, its definitions, theories and models. Three main models of EI have been presented so far in the literature chapter. The first model introduced by Peter Salovey and John Mayer, perceives E.I. as a form of cognitive abilities. The second model, by Reuven Bar-On, presents EI as a mixed intelligence which includes cognitive ability and personality aspects and the third and last model, introduced by Daniel Goleman, also perceives E.I. as a mixed intelligence but it differs from the latter model as it focuses mostly on how cognitive and personality factors determine workplace success. Research has found though that the three models are significantly correlated (Stys and Brown, 2004).
Although EI has been defined in many ways which also lead to various theories, the present study has been focused on the four-branch model by Mayer and Salovey (1997), which characterizes EI as a set of four related abilities: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions. Even if this model is not considered a recent one, it incorporates the wide range of emotional skills to form the bigger concept of EI in the individual. Furthermore, a great part of the studies conducted in the field of EI are based on this model and incorporate its aspects, a fact that strengthens its validity.
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Regarding the construct of Pupil Performance, it is discussed as the ability to remember and use facts and it also relates to initiative, self-reliance, leadership potential and self confidence. Pupil performance involves a big variety of capacities in order a pupil to be considered as well – performing. In the case that this pupil also faces learning difficulties like dyslexia, dyscalculia or AD/HD then performance is often . Although there is limited number of studies investigating the link between EI and pupil performance at the elementary school level, major studies have so far clearly indicated that a statistically significant relationship between EQ-i scores and performance at secondary school and college exists.
The initial aim of this study, therefore, is to find this potential link between EI and Pupil Performance in primary school pupils and to investigate the relation between these two concepts specifically in pupil populations with learning difficulties. So far no studies have explored the relation between pupil performance and EI in such populations, particularly at the primary school level. This significant gap in the literature was the incentive to investigate if and how EI affects pupil performance with learning difficulties.
Moreover the investigation aims also to explore how its results might affect current curricula in integrating interventions that aim to develop EI in pupils with learning difficulties. The second aim of the study is thus to suggest a framework of concern referring to the way that the concept of EI may be integrated within the Greek curricula, special emphasis should be given to the following. The last two decades EI has been the focus of school curricula development via Socio - Emotional Learning Programmes. As in the last years social and emotional competencies are considered to play a more significant role in performance compared to IQ (Ehmke, Siegle, and Hohensee, 2005), school-based programmes of social and emotional learning (SEL) therefore could help young people develop these skills that will lead good academic progress (Fan and Chen, 2001).These programs have indicated an enhancement of the school environment and also helped students and families who may feel difficulties in building relations with teachers and peers to feel more comfortable and ultimately become active members of the school community .
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CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
This chapter focuses on the methodology of the current study. More specifically it introduces the Research Questions and subsequently presents the Method of the study, the Research Tools, Sampling and the Research Procedure that is divided in three subsections: the Pilot study, Access to School and the Timeline. A review of the Analysis procedures using the NVivo software follows and the chapter closes with a review of Ethical issues and a short summary which brings together the main points presented.
2.1 Research Questions
The present study sought to investigate if and how EI affects pupil achievement as evidenced in one classroom of primary school children with learning difficulties.
Specifically the research questions raised were:
a) In what ways is EI a contributing factor to pupil performance in populations of children with learning difficulties?
b) What are the main features of a framework of concern regarding the way the concept of EI may be integrated within the Greek primary school?
2.2 Method
The research method of the current study is the case study. The case study method was selected for the current study as I aimed to study a particular phenomenon (the link between EI and school performance/achievement) within a particular context (a classroom of students with LD attending a private primary school). The units of analysis
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more specifically were individual pupils with learning difficulties and these were studied within the context of a primary school classroom in a Greek private school.
Case study methodology is considered as the most suitable one for descriptive and explanatory research and additionally it is widely accepted in social studies (Eisenhardt, 1989; Lee, 1989; Miles and Huberman, 1994; Yin, 1994, 2003a).
Stake (2000, p.436) noted that a "case study is both a process of inquiry about the case and the product of that inquiry”. Case study is considered as one of the most valuable studies for qualitative studies (Crotty, 1998; Creswell, 1998, 2003; Denzin and Lincoln, 2005; Guba and Lincoln, 1981; Mertens, 2005; Hatch, 2002; Patton, 1990).
Three writers have written in detail about the case study methodology: Merriam (1998), Yin (1981; 1999; 2005), and Stake (1994; 2005; 2008). According to Yin (2003b), the case study strategy consists of the following components: the study’s questions, the units of analysis, the linking of the units, the data to the propositions, and the criteria for analyzing the findings. The case study strategy includes “the ability to ask questions, to be an active listener, to be able to adapt to unforeseen circumstances, to grasp the issues being addressed, and to identify personal bias” (Brown, 2008, p.4.). In 1984 he wrote that case study is “the preferred strategy when ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions are being posed, when the investigator has little control over events, and when the focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real-life context” (p.1). The present study focuses on the ways in which EI affects pupil performance is particularly suited to case study methodology in that it aims to study in-depth a phenomenon from a range of perspectives using multiple sources of evidence.
Here we could mention that there are indeed some limitations when using the case study method. One of its drawbacks should be considered the objective reporting and lack of generalisation (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin, 1994). Furthermore, the researcher’s bias can lead to a lack of precision (Yin, 1994). One effective technique to reduce this negative influence, is the use of multiple sources of evidence in the form of three data collection tools; detailed triangulation from these multiple sources, and an attempt to
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provide a theoretical generalization of the findings, suitable for the small sample this study employs.
Τhe current study additionally employs the multiple-case or cross-case study strategy that allows the researcher to explore the potential links between the variables that are too complex to be examined by a single survey (Yin, 1994). In this way, this study is able to include the voices of multiple cases in order to build a tentative theoretical framework (Research Question 2) on the study’s main theme, EI and pupil performance.
2.3 Research Tools
The choice of the research tools aimed at case study triangulation in the following way. Observation protocols were firstly used to provide the contextual evidence and data on specific behavioural categories obtained from the review of the literature. Subsequently, the questionnaires allowed an exploration of further themes that were not entirely observable, such as self-esteem and ensured that the pupils’ voice and own perspectives were included in the study. Finally the interview delved deeper into the key themes of the study and provided more detailed information on the ways in which pupils’ performance is affected by EI from the pupils’ point of view.
2.3.1 Observation Protocols
Observation protocols were employed during the first phase of the research in order to provide a description of pupil’s EI within the classroom environment. The necessity of observational data is dictated due to the fact that in case that someone attempts to objectively assess another person’s EI behavioural evidence is required that would provide all the data concerning the subject’s behavioural aspects (Goleman, 1995). Reliability was assisted by using an EI observation record sheet assessing emotional competencies, adapted from the Table of Emotional Handling. The ABC table includes the following aspects:
51 Antecedent- The events or circumstances that preexists a behavior
Behaviour- The behaviour
Consequences- The action or responses that follow the behaviour (Pence et al., 2009; Pratt and Dubie, 2008)
To be more accurate, the aim of the aforementioned table was to elicit contextual data concerning the following categories: Emotional Perception, Interpersonal abilities, Emotional Expression, Trust in abilities and knowledge, Self-esteem, Reaction to verbal reprimand, Openness to Success and Failure, Emotional Distraction, Intrinsic Motivation for Participation, Self-control in addition to contextual data. The categories referred to EI are in accordance to the four branches model of Mayer and Salovey that was presented in Chapter 1: Emotional Perception, Facilitating thought, Understanding emotions and finally Managing emotions The contextual data referred to sub categories shedding light on various aspects of the main categories.
I attempted to approach these terms through separating them into questions. For example the term Emotional Expression has been represented in the current table through the following questions: (a) Does the pupil fail in expressing his anger, either physically or verbally, even if the impulse would normally cause that feeling? (b)Does the pupil feel extremely scared? (c) Does the pupil have constant fears? (d)Does the pupil seem to be passive, weak or upset? (e)Does the pupil have frequent or even extreme mood changes?
In the protocols these categories were represented through the following questions:
Does the pupil perceive emotions in self and others?
Does the pupil cooperate with classmates during a team activity?
Does the pupil react in a appropriate way to different situations or not?
Is the pupil confident about his/her knowledge and abilities?
Is the pupil over-confident about his/her knowledge and abilities?
Does the pupil accept success?
Does the pupil accept failure?
Does the pupil stop trying in case that he/she does not accomplish at first an activity?
52 Does the pupil accept failure?
Does the pupil try to give a good impression of self to others?
How does the pupil react to verbal reprimand?
Does the pupil control his/her anger?
Does the pupil fail to express anger even though the incentive would cause anger?
Does the pupil’s mood change rapidly?
Does the pupil shout often without obvious reason?
Does the pupil get emotionally distracted when teaching is interrupted?
Does the pupil control him/herself?
Does the pupil comply with classroom rules?
The observation protocol can be found in Appendix no. 1, section 1.1.
Observations were conducted during Language and Math classes subjects. This choice was conscious as during the teaching of these subjects pupils seem to be more active and eager to participate, according to their teachers and therefore I could collect a greater variety of data so as to explore the relationship between EI and Pupil Performance. Most importantly for the current study,, during these subjects pupils were more often assessed compared to other for their performance (tests, activities, questions) compared to others.
2.3.2 Questionnaire
The questionnaire is one of the most commonly used research tools for data collection (Wilson and McLean, 1994). Both open and closed questions are employed in questionnaire design. In the current study, open-ended questions had the advantage that they allowed the participants to provide a more complete response by providing the opportunity for them describe their opinions and thoughts. Their strong point is that they mostly provide specific and meaningful information (Arhar, Holly, and Kasten, 2001; Patten, 1998). An important asset of questionnaires is that they retain confidentiality through anonymity. This fact makes them an effective tool for collecting data on sensitive activities. (Patten, 1998; Salkind, 1991). In the current study, this anonymity
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was facilitated through a particular way. Questionnaires were handed out to the whole class. Questionnaires with a special sign though were given to the pupils that would form part of the sample of the study, e.i a star for Stratos, a moon for Yiannis and so on. In that way I could track their questionnaires while retaining their anonymity.
The questionnaire in the current study (found in Appendix 1) was based on several recent studies (Adeyemo, 2005; Ohio University, 2003; Petrides et al, 2006; Shipley et al., 2010; Wong et al., 2001) that have investigated EI in correlation with personal and school facets. The questionnaire of the current study has been based on the above mentioned studies. More specific, the studies of Adeyemo, Petrides and Shipley have been employed to elicit the main categories of the questionnaire whereas Wong’s have been the template for posing the questions of each questionnaire’s section and the Youth Deployment Activity Guide of Ohio University has provided the basis of creating the graphics of the questionnaire. Additionally, elements of the activity handbook of Promotion Program of Psychological Health and Education (2008) have been used in order for the questionnaire to cover the wide range of EI and form the final sections. These sections include Emotional Perception and Appraisal, Emotional Understanding, Emotional Facilitation of thought, Emotional Management, Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Skills. Each section is further divided into sub-skills, that address such things as Problem Solving, Happiness, Flexibility and other critical emotional and social skills and competencies.
In the current study, a 6-page questionnaire was administered to the students in order to understand their feelings, put them in writing and help them discover that different situations lead to different feelings. The questionnaire contained illustrated short stories that would appeal to the age of the children and would depict everyday dialogues. Children were asked to step in the “protagonists’ shoes” in order to recognize their feelings, find the hidden ones and discover the influence of other people towards them regarding emotional handling (Promotion Program of Psychological Health and Education, 2008).
The majority of the activities included in the questionnaire have been based on a program conducted by the Center of Research and Applied Studies of the University of
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Athens, Department of Philosophy, Psychology and Pedagogy, Psychology Laboratory, that promoted psychological health and learning in schools (2008) with the exception of the first activity, as it is mentioned below. These activities were part of an extended guide that proposed a special framework to teachers and school psychologists working with children from 8 to 12 years old, in order to promote the emotional development of their pupils. Activities were divided in different sections such as communication skills, recognition and appraisal of emotions, self-esteem, stress confrontation, problem and conflict solving, supporting children in crisis situations and activity books for pupils. Some of these activities (five) were selected to be incorporated into the research, as they included illustrated pictures, which set clear the content of each activity, they covered a wide range of potential emotional situations according to the four branch model of Mayer and Salovey and were supported by the literature review, which helped to interpret the pupils’ responses. As these activities were planned to be a part of teaching in school, it was essential for the study to introduce some changes. These changes did not refer to the content of the activities but to the extension of them. Pupils had forty minutes at their disposal to complete all the activities so it was impossible to create a questionnaire that was more than five pages long. Before administering the questionnaires to the participating pupils, they were piloted on a sample of 10 pupils (described below in the Research Procedure section).
The design of the questionnaire had a twofold aim; Το elicit a wide range of data concerning EI and appeal to the interests and the age of the pupils. Based on the Ohio’s University guideline for pupils 8-10 (p. 6) the first activity of the questionnaire included the “emotional carpet" in order to explore pupils’ Emotional Perception. The next activity (Activity 2) was employed to investigate pupils’ ability to distinguish honest and dishonest/hidden feelings and has been found at the activity handbook of Promotion Program of Psychological Health and Education (p.26-27). The prototype though included four dialogues whereas in the present questionnaire has been used only four of them due to time consuming reasons. Furthermore by the end of this activity a small new section was added where the pupils were asked to fill out with personal experiences concerning this branch of EI. The third activity aimed at investigating Emotional Understanding in terms of associating emotions to events and circumstances and was based on p.37 of the activity handbook. The fourth activity’s
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prototype -aimed at investigating pupils’ self-esteem and self-image- is found in p.54-55 of the aforementioned handbook. The current questionnaire though differs from the prototype in the questions posed that follow the initial table with merits and demerits. To be more specific, the first question right after the table is enriched by “Was it more difficult to find out your strong or your weak points?” and “According to your opinion why did this occur?”. Furthermore the third question of the prototype has not been included and it has been replaced a small happy face encouraging the children to delve into their self-image. The last activity (Activity 5) has been exactly the same as the prototype’s one (p. 51) with the exception of the last part, referred to interpersonal skills, where only three of the sentences included in the prototype have been used, in order not to collect data that could not been used in the analysis section. An analysis of the five activities of the questionnaire follows.
The first page of the questionnaire (Activity 1) depicted a grandmother with a big colorful carpet and children were asked to draw different faces showing various emotions without explaining in words their drawings. This section examined their ability to recognize different emotions.
In the second section (Activity 2), the children were given four different illustrated pictures with dialogues taken from everyday life. Pictures were accompanied with a