Technology Components

To open up the black box Zeleny (1986) points out that the technology consists of three interdependent, co-determined and equally important components: hardware - the physical structure and logical layout of the equipment or machinery that is to be used to carry out the required tasks; software - the knowledge of how to use the hardware in order to carry out the required tasks; and brainware - the reasons for using the technology in a particular way. Bhalla (1987) defines technology as consistent of three elements: the physical things - tools, machines and materials that mankind uses for all activities; the software aspects including technical processes design and procedures such as heat treating sequences, computer programs, etc.; and

information systems that describe the foregoing such as standards for different motor oil, standards for heat exchanger insulation, and standards for screw threads.

A further extension of the understanding of technology components is given by Sharif, (1994a), Ramanathan (1994), Sharif and Ramanathan (1995), The Technology Atlas Team (1987) and the Asian and Pacific Center for Transfer of Technology (1989). They state that technology consists of four interrelated and interacting components which are (1) object-embodied form or "Technoware"; (2) human-embodied form or "Humanware"; (3) document or record-embodied form or "Infoware"; and (4) institution-embodied form or "Orgaware". This engineering approach is considered useful in this study in relation the transfer of any technology. Although it has its limitations in terms of providing somehow fragmentised view of technology, it offers a very clear picture of the various aspects that need to be covered for a technology transfer to be successful. It also emphasises the various functions associated with the use of technology.

Technoware: Technoware is object embodied physical facilities. It comprises a material transformation subsystem and an information processing subsystem. The material transformation subsystem performs desired mechanical operations that the technoware has been designed to perform. Technoware amplifies human powers and controls for transformation operations. In a business enterprise, technoware changes through a process of periodic substitution of old by new. In general, the degree of technoware sophistication corresponds to the increasing complexity of the physical facilities for transformation operations and other functions such as scale of

operations, interrelationships among operations, types of conversions, energy requirements, quality of outputs, safety and environmental soundness of operations etc.

For example, an information-processing subsystem carries out a three stage control sequence namely, sensing-analysis-actuation. The information processing subsystem may be completely or partially built into the technoware. There are considerable interactions between the technoware, the humanware that operates the technoware, and the infoware needed to operate the technoware.

Humanware: Humanware is the person embodied human abilities. It consists of skills, craftsmanship, expertise, and creativity. It is needed to realize the potential of technoware and consists of "contact humanware" and "support humanware". Without relevant humanware, the technoware is simply useless. Humanware changes through a process of progressive learning of new things. Usually the degree of humanware sophistication indicates the increasing level of competence of all individuals engaged by the organisation. The competencies are in terms of skill level (derived from general education and specific training), appropriateness of training, achievement orientation, extent of relevant experience, productivity orientation, creativity potential and the motivation of the personnel (Sharif, 1994a). Humanware sophistication is important to understand the technology properly and utilise in proper need. It includes ability to comprehend and use work-specific technology components, ability to mobilise setup and utilise technology components for work, ability to optimise use of available technology components for all tasks.

It is humanware that, through its insights of the functional capabilities, limitations and extent of manipulability of the technoware, causes desired outputs to be produced by the technoware. The importance of humanware is well elaborated by Ozaki (1991) who points out that the humanistic economic philosophy of Japan is based on three propositions: human resources are the most important element of production. They are the ultimate origin of the market value of all goods produced. People, unlike non-human resources, are intellectual (intelligence-carrying) beings in that they are capable of thinking, analysing, inventing, innovating and developing information which is vital for the creation of wealth. They are psychological beings whose productivity may rise or fall depending on whether they are motivated or demoralized by their work environment.

Humanware includes contact humanware which refers to the operators of the technoware while support humanware refers to the maintenance crew and indirect technoware use facilitators such as operators in manufacturing industries, software specialists and production management personnel.

Humanware needed for the utilization of a given technoware depends on: skill variety (the number of different skills and talent needed for the accomplishment of the job); task identity (the degree to which a job requires the completion of a `whole' and identifiable piece of work); task significance (the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives and work of other people); autonomy (the degree of autonomy required by the individual carrying out the job); and the extent of feedback to be used (from the job itself) (Ramanathan, 1994). The greater the intensity of these factors needed for the use of a technoware, the greater would be the sophistication of the humanware needed.

Humanware sophistication depends not only on formal technical training related to the operation of technoware but also involves: the attitude of the individual towards work, workplace and fellow workers (Ramanathan, 1994). This comes about due to the cumulative effects of the collaboration between individuals making up a team, and applying, during a long period and in the same conditions, a certain process that they themselves have refined. Such know-how generation requires appropriate attitudes in the humanware.

Thus, the sophistication of both the contact and the support humanware would depend on the academic qualifications, experience and training including their attitude towards their work, workplace and fellow workers.

Infoware: Infoware is record embodied documented knowledge. These are facts and formulae, design parameters, specifications, manuals, theories etc. It represents the accumulated knowledge needed to realize the full potential of the technoware, humanware and orgaware. Infoware enables quicker learning and savings in terms of time and resources. It changes through a process of cumulative acquisition of

knowledge. Normally the degree of infoware sophistication represents the increasing utility of an up-to-date knowledge base acquired for various enterprise functions. Sharif (1994a) describes the utility as nature and type of knowledge (relevance, timeliness and reliability of facts and figures), ease of retrieval of stored knowledge, extent of networking for updating, etc. The degree of infoware sophistication

includes documented knowledge that provides awareness regarding technology components, manuals for the operation and maintenance of physical facilities,

availability of facts and figures for acquisition and optimal performance, and access to the latest theories of technoware, humanware and infoware and state-of-art knowledge for innovation.

Orgaware: Orgaware is institution embodied organisational frameworks. They are methods, techniques, organisational networks, and management practices. It

basically helps for the coordination of activities and for resources utilisation towards achieving desired goals. It changes through a process of evolving arrangements and practices. Orgaware sophistication is needed for additional increase of value, an increase of new management techniques, methods and relationships for the market competitiveness and self-reliance of the enterprise. Orgaware sophistication includes tradition based work organisation techniques and methods, education and experience based work facilitation techniques, systems analysis and operations research based optimisation techniques and information technology based re-engineering and innovation techniques, and community based indigenous knowledge. It includes all the tacit knowledge embedded in the organisation.

The critical need for the development of appropriate orgaware to make the best use of advanced technoware and meet the challenges of dynamic market conditions has been the theme behind many interesting papers such as those by Jaikumar (1986), Hayes and Jaikumar (1988), Cusumano (1988), Kanter (1989), Schmenner (1988) and Hill (1992). In today’s globalised economy its importance is even higher as it is the orgaware that mainly helps bring together all the components of technology implementation.

It should be emphasized that the four components of technology - technoware, humanware, orgaware and infoware are interrelated and influence each other. They are required simultaneously in any system of production that is important to be transferred. Absence of any of the four components means no transformation in the process and thus an ineffective system. While the humanware is the centre of all these activities, the orgaware is the environment that allows for all components to come together. The infoware can facilitate the process or its lack can slow it down. We can see the inter-relationship and dependency of the four components of the technology in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: Relationships of technology components

Source: Sharif 1995

In any technology transfer process it is important to be aware of all these four

components in order to achieve a positive outcome. If the emphasis is only on one of them, e.g. technoware (as is most often the case), not all aspects of technology would be transferred and the new operations would be left without the complete

requirements for successful performance.