Thematic analysis: coding the data

In accordance with the research aims, each newspaper article was analysed in order to highlight particular aspects of the article that alluded to the representation or framing of Britain and British identity. Indeed, Berg (2006) notes that ‘In its simplest form, a theme is a simple sentence, a string of words with a subject and a predicate’ (2006:

312). However, this is not to suggest that all themes are clearly demarcated and distinct nor is it to argue that the collection of themes should be arbitrary. Rather, it is to suggest that the obtaining of particular themes is based upon a process of categorisation whereby examination and comparison of the text is used to represent frequently occurring sentiments or significances.

Accordingly, underpinning the development of themes within thematic analysis is the coding of specific aspects of an article, which are assigned a particular

‘code’ or ‘theme’ (Hilton and Hunt, 2010). These codes are subsequently recorded onto coding sheets.⁹ Indeed, this process is dependent upon whether themes are drawn from existing ideas that the researcher brings to the data (deductive coding) or

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8 See chapter three, sections 3.1. and 3.2.3.

9 See Appendix I for an example of the coding sheet used in this study.

from the raw data itself (inductive coding) (Mayring, 2000). Consequently, in deductive coding the focus of analysis tends to rely more on the verification of themes found in previous research (Sterkenburg et al., 2010). Indeed, whereas the use of provisional ideas was obtained during the literature review, inductive coding ensured that new themes were allowed to emerge (Sterkenburg et al., 2010).

With the above concerns in mind, it is evident that the ‘coding and analysis of data are activities that can begin in the early stages of data collection’ (Seale, 2004:

319). These stages will often involve interpreting both the manifest and latent content of the article. In regards to the former, manifest content relates to characteristics that are directly observable from the article. Conversely, latent content relates to the implicit meanings embedded within the article, whereby something is implicitly referred to (Joffe and Yardley, 2004). In relation to thematic analyses, Joffe and Yardley (2004) note that:

Thematic analyses often draw on both types of theme, and even when the manifest theme is the focus, the aim is to understand the latent meaning of the manifest themes observable within the data, which requires interpretation (2004: 57)

More importantly, this requires staying ‘true to the raw data, and its meaning within a particular context of thoughts, rather than attaching too much importance to the frequency of codes which have been abstracted from their context’ (Joffe and Yardley, 2004: 67 [italics added]). Measuring the frequency of codes is more commonly associated with quantitative thematic analysis, such as, the previously mentioned ‘content analysis’ method (Kohlbacher, 2006). Here, the exclusive coding of each article (assigning a single theme to the whole article) is an important part of providing statistical results (Joffe and Yardley, 2004).

However, the ‘meaning’ of an article can often be deduced through the use of a number of themes. Indeed, for this thesis it was decided that an exclusively

‘quantitative’ approach to coding would not elucidate upon the various attributes of the article. Accordingly, a qualitative method of analysis was used to understand the ways in which the print media represented British identity (Andriotis, 2010). As a result, it was decided that each article would be coded for as many themes as it contained (Joffe and Yardley, 2004). Indeed, this decision was supported by a process of open and axial coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Vincent et al., 2010).

Strauss and Corbin (1990) define open coding as ‘the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualising, and categorizing data’ (1990: 61).

This systematic approach to the generation of themes allows the researcher to become familiar with the text, highlighting and recording key sections of the text, which relate to a specific theme (Chamberlain, Camic and Yardley, 2004). Consequently, ‘this stage involves initially underlining significant events, facts, and incidents … that assist in the identification of themes or key words’ (Noiseux and Ricard, 2008: 1151).

In short, this can be conceived as stepping into the data, as the researcher consciously involves themself with the article’s characteristics, meaning and tone (Elias, 1978).

Accordingly, an open coding of each newspaper article formed the first stage of analysis.

The second stage of analysis involved refining the specific themes obtained during open coding (Noiseux and Ricard, 2008). This stage of analysis is referred to as axial coding (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Vincent et al., 2010). Here, initial themes are examined for explanation, justification and verification (Perry et al., 2004). In doing so, the researcher begins ‘to confirm and elaborate the scope of categories established earlier’ in order ‘to identify how they may be related, and to identify limits to their applicability’ (Chamberlain et al., 2004: 76). This helps to uncover relationships between themes, which were subsequently identified and clustered under broader thematic titles that underpin their association (Fereday and Muir-Cochrane, 2006). Indeed, this requires a degree of detachment from the researcher as they step out of their original involvement in order to consider the broader thematic structure of the news coverage (Elias, 1978; Lee and Maguire, 2009).

4.4.1. Managing a thematic analysis: issues and concerns

Overall, a crucial aim of the analysis of each newspaper was based upon ensuring that each theme was represented fairly across both the domestic and foreign press coverage. Indeed, the open-coding stage ensured that the collected themes were sufficiently exhaustive in order to account for each variation in the article’s content (Berg, 2006). As a result, this stage of coding worked inductively. Axial coding provided a second stage whereby themes were compared, contrasted and justified (Berg, 2006). Accordingly, axial coding ensured that less frequent themes were not forgotten or ignored but were considered in regards to their relationship with the overall thematic structure. Ultimately, this stage of analysis provided a deductive

reading of the data as broader themes were developed and related to the overall thematic structure as well as the existing literature (Chamberlain et al., 2004; Elias, 1978). This allowed for the development of theoretical concepts and ideas to contribute to an analysis of the evidence (Maguire and Young, 2002). Consequently, thematic categories were formed through theoretical discussions relating to existing bodies of knowledge regarding Britain and the established-outsider model. In such instances, an interweaving between themes and theory was achieved (Elias, 1978;

Maguire and Young, 2002).

Incidentally, during the formation of thematic categories my own ‘theoretical sensitivity’ proved particularly important (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Theoretical sensitivity refers to the ‘ability to give insight and meaning to data’ by understanding the role of the researcher in the research process (McCreaddie and Payne, 2010: 787).

Ultimately, whereas, my own apriori beliefs, emotions and assumptions were reflective of my involvement with the subject, ‘the interpretive capabilities of the research can be enhanced – or diminished – by some degree of involvement’ (Perry et al., 2004: 144 [italics added]). Therefore, a central part of the research process involved maintaining a balance between an inductive and deductive coding of the data, indeed, this worked alongside Elias’s (1978; 1987) involvement-detachment balance. As a result, ‘no theme can be entirely inductive or data driven, since the researcher’s knowledge and preconceptions will inevitably influence the identification of themes’ (Joffe and Yardley, 2004: 58). Subsequently, this influence was managed via the use of a notebook during the coding process, which allowed for any thoughts and observations to be recorded and used during the research process.

4.5. Analysing the Diamond Jubilee and London Olympic Games: the research