Theoretical Coding

topic of a sentence or group of sentences. The codes, although provisional and tentative, gave insight to the range of ways that it was possible to interpret ethical fashion. Initial codes were predominantly descriptive, they did not expose the substance of the content (Tesch, 1990) in terms of its meaning; they provided a label for a definition of ethical fashion and insight to what each a priori code had been ‘related to’. Initial coding was followed by a cycle of process coding (iteration 2 in figure 5:1) which explained the initial codes and led to more detailed categorisation of data.

4.7.2.2 Process Coding

Process coding (iteration 2 in figure 4:6), served to make the implicit, explicit through exposure of ‘the substance’ of the media content. Using gerunds as the basis of each code, process codes were used to expose the meaning of ethical fashion in terms of the action and interaction (Saldana, 2012) that was embedded within each sentence and in the implied framing of each article. Through this process, each sentence was closely considered and constantly compared to others in order to determine the tacit assumptions embedded within it. In accordance with Glaser (1978), Charmaz (2006) and Saldana (2009), adopting gerunds fostered theoretical sensitivity; in using them the researcher progressed from static topics into the exposure of enacted processes (Charmaz, 2006:136) Gerunds prompted the coding of meaning and actions.

4.7.2.3 Selective Coding

To categorise and explain the codes further in the move towards data reduction and the development of theory, a cycle of selective coding (iteration 3 in figure 4:6) led to the clustering of each a priori code’s process codes into ‘categories of meaning’. Close analysis of these categories of meaning then led to the further reduction of data which informed the organisation of abstract concepts into three core categories that represented the meanings of ethical fashion as it was presented in the media texts, in the UK, between 2006 and 2008. Each iteration of coding, in each phase of analysis, was continued to the point of theoretical saturation; the point at which no new properties or meanings emerged from continued coding. Selective coding exposed distinct categories of meaning during the third iteration of analysis and codes were renamed accordingly. The prefix ‘Media use of…’ was removed from each a priori code and the suffix ‘….means’ was added in order to signify the clarification of meaning.

4.7.2.4 Theoretical Coding

In the process of comparing category to incident of meaning and category to category, emergent concepts became increasingly abstract as analysis led to the development of

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theoretical codes. These emergent and tentative theoretical codes (iteration 4 in figure 4:6) were progressively revaluated in each phase of the research and are used in Chapter Seven to build and model a theory of mainstream consumer understanding of ethical fashion

4.8 Primary research: Stage 1- Phase 2

Aim 3 of this study was to establish mainstream female consumer understanding of the ethical fashion message. In keeping with the premises of grounded theory, the findings of phase 1 of stage one of the research were used to enable entry to phase 2 and to inform exposure of and comparison to the mainstream consumers’ construction of the ethical fashion concept. The fundamental purpose of the investigation was to gain meaningful insight into cultural contexts that may influence mainstream consumer receptivity to the ethical fashion message and to the factors of experience and lifestyle that may differentiate interpretations between participants. It was critical that the methodological choices made to engage with female consumers would help to expose mainstream consumers’ construction of the ethical fashion concept. The focus group was deemed an appropriate method for the second phase of data collection for two reasons: a) this method has been used successfully in the study of ethical purchasing behaviour (Amyx et al, 1994; Thompson, 1995; Follows & Jobber, 2000; Calvin & Lewis, 2005) and b) to facilitate the exploratory nature of the research and provide a medium for the generation of rich consumer insight (Fern, 1982).

Founded upon the premise that understanding, significance, and meaning are developed not separately within or by the mainstream consumer, but in coordination with other social contexts and social actors, the central aim of Phase 2 analysis was to explore and develop insight to the mainstream consumer’s knowledge and understanding of the ethical fashion message. The findings of Phase 1 were tested and developed in Phase 2 as focus group discussion with mainstream consumers served to saturate and possibly extend the emergent theoretical codes and their properties. Holding the assumption that knowledge is constructed through communication (Sayer, 2000; Wikgren, 2004:14), through a set of semi-structured focus group activities and focus group discussion, the researcher was able to explore, expose and explain the social mechanisms and causal patterns that provide insight to a perceived lack of mainstream consumer engagement with the ethical fashion concept.

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4.8.1 The Focus Group Strategy

Calvin & Lewis (2005) present focus group activity as an effective method of exploratory data collection, particularly when literature in a subject area is limited or when an area of investigation is relatively new to a subject area, Krueger and Casey (2000, p:5) define a focus group as a ‘carefully planned series of discussions designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest’ while Barrows, (2000, p193) presents focus groups ‘as a type of a group interview where a small group of individuals are gathered together for the purpose of discussing one (or sometimes more) topic of interest.’

An advantage of the focus group method to this study was its ability to facilitate discussion with female mainstream consumers of a particular demographic profile, in order to gain insight to their understanding and interpretation of the language of ethical fashion. Fern, (1992), Barrows, (2000) and Hines (2000) suggest that the focus group environment is possibly the most valuable in enabling a researcher to develop in-depth insight to participants’ perspectives in any given subject. McClelland (1994) and Threlfall (1999) confirm the value of focus groups within an inductive and triangulated research design such as that presented in this thesis.

Given the emphasis of this investigation it was clear that the demographic profile of focus group participants should be homogenous (Morgan, 1988). The number of participants that should take part in in a focus group discussion is an area of academic debate (Gibbs, 1997;

Boddy, 2005; Calvin & Lewis, 2005) however, Krueger, (1994) and Prince and Davies‘(2001) propose that groups of 4 to 6 participants may prove the optimum environment; that which is most conducive to full participant engagement, an open sharing of views and the generation of a rich body of primary data. However, Dreachslin, (1999) and Gibbs, (1997) warn of the fact that too much homogeneity within a focus group setting with few participants, could limit the range of perspectives shared and, at worst, render the findings invalid. This is an issue that could however be addressed by the number of focus group sessions held. In taking steps to address this issue, Krueger (1994) argues that in any one study using the focus group method, a researcher should hold a minimum of three focus group sessions.

While clear about the advantages of the focus group method to the research presented in this thesis, the researcher was considerate of the inherent limitations of the need to engage participants from a homogenous demographic. Convenience sampling (Strauss and Corbin,1998) was used to establish the homogenous set of focus group participants for a pilot study. Personal networks (Valerio et al,. 2016) were used to identify potential participants while respondents directly known by the researcher were not included. The

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value of a pilot study to phase 2 of stage one research became clear, and not only from the perspective of participant profile but also to test the choice of research methods.

4.8.2 Pilot Focus Group Activity

The pilot focus group session consisted of three parts; 1) the Q sort, 2) word association / meaning exercise 3) semi structured discussion.

1) Q Sort: The Q method condition of instruction operationalised the hypothetical constructs that emerged from the process of content analysis. Instructions required that the participants systematically rank-order the Q set according to those that are

‘most characteristic of my viewpoint’ to those that are ‘most uncharacteristic of my viewpoint’. Each member of the group carried out the Q sort independently and then reformed as a group to participate in semi structured discussion.

2) Word Association: In addition to use in the preparation for Q methodology, the initial codes were used to determine a list of repeatedly occurring words and terms used to define ethical fashion that could be presented to and discussed with the participant group to determine each individual’s interpretation of them and to determine what was associated with their use. To avoid peer contamination, each participant recorded her own responses onto a pro-forma supplied by the researcher.

3) Semi structured discussion explored the results of the Q Sort, the associations and meaning of the words used to communicate ethical fashion products and explored the social interactions or experiences that had led to the attachment of these associations and meanings by the individual participant.

The findings of the pilot study are reported in the conference paper in Appendix 7. While the process of convenience sampling proved valuable in securing an homogenous participant group, the Q sort was found to be an overly complex method for participant engagement. Post pilot study, the decision was taken to replace Q method with a simpler word definition exercise. It became apparent that to facilitate exploration of mainstream consumer interpretations of the terms used in the sample media communications, a word association exercise might be useful tool to use within a focus group setting. This enabling, projective technique (Will, Eadie & MacAskill, 1996) could be useful to guide participants in reflection upon their knowledge of ethical fashion and sustainability related issues.

Projective techniques are classified as a structured- indirect way of investigating the whys of situations (Webb, 1992:125).

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Framing describes how people use information and presentation features regarding issues as they form impressions. The word association exercise was also used with participants to uncover the frames of reference used to interpret the words used in presenting ethical fashion (Webb, 1992:125-126). This may have been difficult to articulate buy other means.

The exercise was used to expose variation in personal frames of reference and to gain insight to the social experiences that informed their interpretations.

4.8.2.1 Recruitment of Additional Participants

As indicated by the use of purposive sampling and convenience sampling, the researcher has adopted a non-probability approach to sampling procedures to ensure that data sources are representative of the specific populations under review (Saunders et al, 2003). In addition, non-probability sampling is appropriate given that the aim of the research is to develop specific insights to the research problem rather than draw statistical inferences from the data that might then be generalised to wider social contexts.

Post pilot study, participants for all further focus group events were recruited via a combination of convenience and snowball sampling. Valerio, et al,. (2016) in Table 4.15 illustrate the strengths and limitations of both sampling methods. Convenience sampling enabled the researcher to contact known individuals in specific job roles e.g.

administrative work, while the snowballing method enabled the researcher to access and recruit additional participants in the same or similar job roles or demographic contexts. Demographic homogeneity, rather than a limitation for the research was a specific criteria for recruitment. While literature suggests that the snowball method may lead to fears of free sharing of information, the combination of convenience and snowballing allowed the conveniently sampled participants to provide some information about the nature of the researcher (rather than the research) to support ease in participation and to assist in the assurance of credibility and consistency in the research design.