Understanding agency as a complex dynamic system

Reviewing the concept of learner agency, this section considers the complex dynamic nature of agency. Central to the understanding of dynamism is the concept of emergence. In general, the concept of emergence relates to all the factors in one system that can generate a new system through their interaction (Mercer, 2012). More specifically, if all the components are interdependent of each other in one system, then changes in any one part of the system will probably lead to changes to other parts of the system, and consequently, to the generation of a new system; this process is called ‘emergence’. So an agency system is typically described as complex rather than linear.

The nature of learner agency is not only complex but also dynamic. Mercer’s (2011) studies indicated that learners’ agency appears to emerge from the interaction and combination of several factors such as beliefs, self-concept, motivation, self-regulation. The study also found that the learner’s agency is related to macro interactions such as sociocultural and education contexts, ranging from classroom to family contexts, or micro interactions such as the immediate context. So, there is no single certain variable that can definitely lead to the learner practising his or her agency in a particular way, but agency seems to be more properly perceived from a holistic perspective in that any emergence is generated from multiple interacted variables in many unpredictable ways and the results can vary.

2.6.3 Understanding learners’ agency in LLS research taking a sociocultural approach

The sociocultural approach emphasizes the role of agency in a learner’s strategy use through its theorization of activity. In general, activity theory refers to certain specific goal-directed actions which are mediated by the appropriate means to help individuals achieve their aims under particular temporal and spatial conditions (Lantolf, 2000). Learner agency is conceived as a changeable and fluctuating individual willingness and ability to act to achieve goals according to changing social conditions (Gao, 2010b). Learners actively construct their own learning conditions, re-structure activities, or conduct any actions selectively or particularly etc. all of which activities

their goals (Lantolf & Genung, 2002; Nardi, 1996; Duff, 2012; Stanfield, 2014). Socioculturally guided study of LLS, learner agency is seen as a complex dynamic system due to its multiple interactions with the system's constituents, which also include environmental factors. Therefore, learner agency is constantly in flux, but the direction of change cannot be ascribed to any single variable as ‘it is a function of the overall state of the system’ (Dörnyei and Ushioda, 2011, p.37).

2.6.4 Understanding the complexity of the role of learner agency in LLS study from a social-contextual perspective

Different learners’ agency will lead to different learners’ language learning strategies and learning experiences. Apart from the role of learning context, learner strategy use also shifts according to the individual’s agency in the learning context.

Gkonou’s (2015: 197) claims that learner agency should not be merely viewed as a reaction to contexts, but should also be viewed as proactive actions in response to the changing English learning context. In Gao’s (2010b) exploration of Mainland Chinese students’ language learning experiences focusing on the changes in their LLS use prior to and after their arrival in an English medium university in Hong Kong, it was concluded that learners’ strategy use is interrelated with their exercise of power - the will and the ability to act. Some participants from Mainland China were creative or positive in making efforts to overcome or adopt to the new language speaking environment; however, other participants were constrained by the change in context.

sustaining a social network to support her language learning through manipulating her relationships with English, Cantonese and Mandarin appropriately. In contrast, Mengshi, another participant in Gao’s (2010b) research, found it extremely hard to get successful access to such supportive social learning resources. These differences in a learner’s capacity and willingness to act will lead to different perceptions of the learning context and different levels of satisfaction with the learning process, thus leading to different outcomes in second language learning.

Learner agency is not only dynamically shaped by a monolithic variable, but rather mediated by various contextual, intrapersonal and sociocultural factors across time and space (Gkonou, 2015; Lantolf, 2013). The findings of Gao’s (2010b) research also support the view that the concept of ‘learner agency’ should be broadened to include a number of elements, not just learners’ metacognitive knowledge (Wenden, 1998) or self-regulatory competence (Tseng et al., 2006) but also include social contextual elements. As demonstrated by Gao (2010b), language learners are more likely to realize the potential of their LLS knowledge in the learning process if they have an appropriate level of sociocultural identification of contextual elements for reconfiguration.

This point means that if the learners have some prior knowledge or experiences or cultural practices in the learning context, it will help them access or maintain

participants in Gao’s (2010b) study was familiar with American culture. Although limited, the learner found it very helpful to interact with American exchange students in Hong Kong and the US. However, another student who lacked knowledge of English history or pop music found insufficient background knowledge became a barrier when he socialized with English-speaking exchange students. Moreover, in comparison with other students, the learners who were more capable of transforming or creating contextual conditions to become favourable social networks to support their language learning were more satisfied with their experience of learning English (Gao, 2010b). For instance, such learners turned out to be better at relating to both non-local and local students in Hong Kong and the more often recruited them as part of valuable social networks to support their language learning (Gao, 2010b).

Huang’s (2011: 230) argument that apart from the learner agency arising from engaging in the social world, learner agency entailing action was often suggested to arise from deliberation and choice (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). Learner agenda and agency are closely related. 'Agenda' in Huang’s (2011: 242) study refers to ‘things to do’, ‘a personally relevant and meaningful agenda might lead to the exercise of agency in return might lead to a greater autonomy’. Learner agenda and agency might be influenced by the learners’ construction of future development, such as their general concept of English learning or their career planning. Learner agency enabled the learners to reflectively think whereby they ‘introspectively or retrospectively look into their own thoughts, feelings, emotions,’ and critically assess the results (Gao,

2013: 229). Gao (2013: 235) concluded that language learners were enabled to use by their agency ‘through internal conversations or reflective/reflexive thinking’, and during this process, learners discerned and deliberated various ‘concerns, desires, and visions to identify their top priorities in the light of contextual and structural conditions’ (Gao, 2007).

In sum, learner agency is complex and dynamic and should be seem as a variety of capacities, as both the motive/belief and social context systems which underlie the learners’ active language strategy use and successful learning. Learner agency plays a significant role in the effectiveness of second language learning when people make choices, self-regulate and take control of their LLS use and thereby achieve their language goals (Stanfield, 2014:173; Duff, 2012; Gkonou, 2015:195).