for example, when the objective is for students to gain a better understanding of controversial issues or to work cooperatively with classmates to solve complex problems—a mastery approach may not be the method of choice.
Summary
If we look at typical classrooms from a behaviorist perspective, we realize that reinforcement comes far less frequently than it should (and often only after a considerable delay), and punishment comes all too often. The use of both reinforcement and punishment in classrooms has been subject to other criticisms as well; some reflect a misunderstanding of common behaviorist practices, but others are legitimate.
When certain guidelines are followed, the well- planned, systematic use of reinforcement can be highly effective in improving students’ classroom learning and behavior. To maximize reinforcement’s effectiveness, desired behaviors should be specified up front, reinforcers should be tailored to individual students, and response–reinforcement contingencies should be explicitly communicated and consistently applied. Meanwhile, inappropriate behaviors can often be reduced through extinction, noncontingent reinforcement, reinforcement of other behaviors, or punishment. A number of strategies enhance punish- ment’s effectiveness; for instance, punishment is more effective when students know in advance what behaviors will be punished and how, when it’s admin- istered within the context of a generally warm and supportive environment, and when it’s accompanied by reasons why certain behaviors are unacceptable.
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) involves the
application of behaviorist principles to address seri- ous and chronic behavior problems. Typically it involves concrete specification and measurement of target behaviors, manipulation of antecedent events and consequences in order to change the frequency
of various responses, ongoing monitoring of an intervention to ensure its effectiveness, and specific plans for generalization and phase-out. Such mecha- nisms as group contingencies, token economies, and schoolwide positive behavior support allow teachers and therapists to use reinforcement effectively even in large-group settings.
Instructional objectives, and especially behavioral
objectives (which describe educational outcomes in terms of precise, observable responses), are a direct outgrowth of the behaviorist concept of terminal behavior. Objectives facilitate communication among students and teachers; they also help in the selection of appropriate instructional strategies and evaluation techniques. Objectives tend to focus teachers’ and students’ attention on the information and skills they identify (an advantage) and away from other informa- tion and skills (a decided disadvantage if all impor-
tant objectives haven’t been identified or aren’t being assessed).
Programmed instruction, computer-assisted instruc- tion, and mastery learning incorporate such behavior-
ist principles as active responding, shaping, and immediate reinforcement. In general, noncomputer- based programmed instruction appears to be no more effective than traditional instructional methods, whereas computer-assisted instruction and mastery learning often lead to better learning. Behaviorist approaches to instruction are probably best used with certain kinds of students (e.g., those with a history of academic failure, low motivation, or high anxiety) rather than as a matter of course with all students.
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ne summer my sons Alex and Jeff spent quite a bit of time with their Uncle Pete, a large man who could pick them both up at the same time and carry them around on his shoulders. Uncle Pete’s feats of strength were quite a contrast to Mom’s and Dad’s diffi- culties in lifting either boy alone, or even in opening pickle jars. For several years after that sum- mer, Alex and Jeff spoke often of wanting to be like Uncle Pete, and I found that I could talk them into eating many foods they had previously shunned simply by saying, “This is what helps Uncle Pete get big and strong.” The ploy never did work for broccoli, however.When my daughter Tina was in junior high school, certain friends often called her before school to find out what she’d be wearing that day. Tina was apparently a bit of a fashion trendset- ter at school, and several other girls were mimicking her attire. Given Tina’s apparel choices on many occasions, I shuddered at the thought of how her cronies must have looked.
People learn a great deal from observing their fellow human beings. Young boys may emu- late hero figures such as Superman, Spiderman, and Uncle Pete. Through watching and copying one another, young adolescent girls may begin to behave in similar ways, dressing alike, wearing their hair in faddish styles, and participating in the same extracurricular activities. Children may imitate their parents by developing similar hobbies and interests, expressing similar political and religious beliefs, and using their parents’ disciplinary techniques in raising their own children. And in the classroom, students learn many academic skills—reading, writing, arithmetic, and so on—at least partly through watching and imitating what their teachers and classmates do.
Such learning by observation and modeling is the focus of social cognitive theory (e.g., Bandura, 1977, 1986, 2006; T. L. Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1978). This perspective was initially called social learning theory to reflect the fact that a great deal of human learning involves watching and interacting
with other people. In its earliest forms, it was based largely on behaviorist principles, but it now includes many cognitivist ideas—hence the gradual shift in label to social cognitive theory. 1
Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur
Self-Efficacy
How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy Self-Regulation
Elements of Self-Regulation Promoting Self-Regulated Behavior The Cognitive Side of Self-Regulation Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory Summary
General Principles of Social Cognitive Theory Environmental Factors in Social Learning: Revisiting
Reinforcement and Punishment
Problems with a Strict Behaviorist Analysis of Social Learning
Cognitive Factors in Social Learning Reciprocal Causation
Modeling
How Modeling Affects Behavior Characteristics of Effective Models
Behaviors That Can Be Learned through Modeling