The components of theory are:
Concepts
Concepts are class names which may refer to objects, properties of objects (colour, for example), events, properties of events, and finally to relationships among objects or events. A concept is our perception of reality to which we have attached some word labels for the purpose of identification. A concept therefore, expresses an observation formed from our generation of different forms of reality. Ultimately, it is important to define the concept we are to measure, including hypothesised relations among observables. This is to permit unequivocal interpretation of validity evidence of all relevant observations and determine values to be assigned to each type of observation.
To understand and communicate information about objects and events, there must be some common ground on which to do it. Concepts serve the purpose. Classifying and categorising objects or events that have common characteristics beyond any single observation create concepts.
We use a host of concepts in our everyday thinking, conversing and other activities. The success of research hinges on how clearly we conceptualise and how well others understand the concepts we use.
Concepts are the tools, with which we think, criticise, argue, explain and analyse. Merely perceiving the external world does not in itself give us knowledge about it. In order to make sense of the world we must, in a sense impose meaning upon it and this we do through the construction of concepts. Concepts help us to classify objects by recognising that they have similar forms or similar properties. Concepts are also of
“general” nature, they can relate to a number of objects, indeed to any object that complies with the characteristics of the general idea itself.
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It is no exaggeration to say, that our knowledge of the political world is built up through developing and refining concepts which help us make sense of that world. Concepts, in that sense are building blocks of human knowledge.
However, the use of concepts presents difficulties that accentuated in a research setting, as people may differ in the meanings attach to particular concept. The problem with concepts is that the political context we seek to understand is constantly shifting and is highly complex. Hence, Max Weber tried to overcome the problem by recognising particular concepts as “ideal types”. This view implies that the concepts we use are constructed by singling out certain basic or central features of the phenomenon in question, which means that other features are down-graded or ignored altogether.
A further problem is that political concepts are often the subject of deep ideological controversy. A single term can represent a number of rival concepts, none of which can be accepted as its “true” meaning. For example, it is equally legitimate to define politics as what concerns that state, as the conduct of public life; as debate and conciliation; and as the distribution of power and resources.
Constructs
A construct is simply defined as a concept or idea that is deliberately invented for a particular scientific purpose, which becomes a concept when formalised. We build constructs especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not directly subject to observation. Thus, there is a line between concept and construct. For example, negritude, the study of black philosophy is a construct formed from the concept Negro (black). Nigerianisation is also a construct derived from the concept Nigeria and it connotes the idea of making a thing Nigerian.
Definition
If concepts are to serve the functions of communication, sensitivity to and organisation of experience, generalisation, and theory construction, they have to be clear, precise, and agreed upon. To achieve clarity and precision in the use of concepts during research, scientists employ two major types of definitions: conceptual and operational (Nachimias and Nachimias, 2009).
In conceptual definition, we substitute the concept or construct with other concepts or constructs. For example, the conceptual definition of
“power” is conceptually defined as the ability of an individual, a group, or the state to get another to do something that the latter would not
otherwise do. In this example, concept of power can be defined by still other concepts.
Operational definition shows how a variable can be measured. For example, “Reference” can be defined in terms of output of product per given time or period. An operational definition sets forth a set of procedures that describe the activities a researcher needs to perform to empirically establish the existence or degree of existence of a phenomenon described by a concept. That is, they define what to do and what to observe in order to bring the phenomenon to be studied within the range of the researcher’s experience and understanding. Such definitions make the meanings of concepts concrete by laying out the measuring procedures that provide the empirical criteria for the scientific application of concepts. Operational definitions, therefore, make it possible to confirm the existence of concepts that have no direct observable characteristics (Nachimias and Nachimias, 2009).
Proposition
Proposition is defined as a statement about concepts that may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena. A proposition is a provisional statement which makes predictions about empirical data.
Before the researcher collects and analyses data, he frequently makes a prediction derived from his theoretical propositions. These predictions state specifically what he expects to find and are called hypotheses.
Prepositions are of great interest in research because they may be used to assess the truth or falsity of relationships among observable phenomena. When we advance a preposition for testing, we are hypothesising. In other words, when a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, we call it a hypothesis.
Hypothesis
The scientist cannot study a situation, a problem or a phenomenon without making a conjectural statement that well direct his investigation and after the investigation, enable him make deductions including conclusions and recommendations.
A hypothesis is, therefore, a tentative statement about relationships that exist between two or among variables. It is a conjectural statement about relations and need to be tested and subsequently accepted or rejected. It is a statement that put together all the concepts, constructs and variables and gives the researcher a clearer view of the problem under study.
In research, it guides the direction of the study and provides a framework for organising empirical facts.
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Hypothesis can be formulated through:
(a) intuition
(b) deduced from findings of other studies and (c) theory.
If several hypotheses derived from a theory are conclusively supported by a vast amount of research, they may take the status of laws. A hypothesis if it is true, states a law. A law is defined as a statement of invariant relationship among observable or measurable properties. Law in this context connotes law of science. The term law usually refers to a regular, predictable relationship among empirical variables. To some, it also means a strongly established theoretical or abstract principle.
However, his skeptical scientific attitude permits the researcher to reject or qualify a law, should additional data appear which contradicts it.
Variables
At the empirical level, where propositions are converted to hypotheses and testing occurs, the scientist is likely to be dealing with variables. A variable is a construct or concept on which numerical values can be assigned. Numerical values are assigned to variables based on properties. For example, values such as: 1year, 2years, 3years and so on.
When a concept or construct takes different values, it is said to vary.
Numerical values cannot be assigned to most concepts because they do not vary. Concepts that are invariable are known as constants or parameters. There is need to identify the concepts that vary and those that do not vary, so as to know how to manipulate them and obtain desired results for any scientific tests. Some variables are dichotomous, that is, have only two values, reflecting the presence or absence of a property, for example, male/female, employed/unemployed. Continuous variable may take values with a given range or test scores, for example:
0 to 100; age 20 to 40 years; income N20,000 to N100,000.
Independent variable causes dependent variable to occur. Intervening variable is a conceptual mechanism through which the independent variable and moderating variable might affect the dependent variable.
Moderating variable or interaction variable is a second independent variable that is included because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the original independent variable and dependent variable relationship.
The intervening variable can be defined as a factor which theoretically affects the dependent variable but cannot be observed or has not been
measured. Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomenon.
Thus, definition of variables in hypothesis is very important in scientific inquiry. Variables generate data for analysis and it is necessary that the researcher defines his variables clearly to enable him test his postulations about relationships or any other form of analysis.
Parameter
A parameter is a characteristic of a population which helps to summarise information about the population with regard to the variable and measures of dispersion.
Paradigm
A paradigm is a related set of principles, doctrines and theories that help to structure the process of intellectual inquiry. Examples of a Paradigm are: political ideologies- liberalism, conservatism, socialism, fascism, feminism and so on. In effect, a paradigm constitutes the framework within which the search for knowledge is conducted. In economics, this can be seen in the replacement of Keynesianism by monetarism and perhaps the subsequent shift back to neo-keynesianism. Thus, a paradigm in a general sense is a pattern or model that highlight relevant features of a particular phenomenon, rather in the manner of an ideal type.