Work and Organizational Themes

As previously mentioned, Time Perspective is an influential aspect of the individual’s life, yet there is an important domain of Psychology in which the research on this topic is scarce; we are referring to Organizational and Work Psychology (Thoms & Blasko, 2004). The same authors point out three reasons for this context: 1) the ambiguity concerning TP definitions; 2) the lack of a highly valid and consistent instrument to measure TP; and 3) the need for a strong theory that relates TP to organizational phenomena. Martín, Ortuño & Vasquez (2013) mention that temporal orientation, time perspective, as well other subjective temporal dimensions show a strong influence explaining work and organizational phenomena.

In the individual facet, Shipp et al. (2009) has proven that a subjective attachment with time has a remarkable impact on organizational commitment Vasquez (2010) and leadership (Escalada, 2010). An analysis of the temporal research on organizational topics will reveal that the bulk of temporal research has used the concept of Consideration of Future Consequences. Yet, still in the individual domain but using a different methodology, Das (1991) revealed Time Perspective as a major influence regarding several aspects of work performance.

Using a recent concept known as Temporal Focus, Shipp et al. (2009) show how high levels of Future Temporal Focus facilitates a better professional

integration, since it is positively associated with job satisfaction and commitment. On the contrary, in the same study it was proven how a high Past Temporal Focus creates difficulties in the individual’s professional situation. Studying the relation of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour – OCB with Temporal Focus, Strobel, Tumasjan, Spörrle & Welpe (2013) present results of a regressional analysis that confirms how future temporal thinking is of vital importance to explain OCBs that contribute to organizational adaptation and change, more specifically Altruism and Civic Virtue, showing a positive association with these both OCBs. According to the authors this was an expected and logical result, since they defend that OCBs are by nature future-oriented behaviours, because they intend to generate changes in the work context aiming a better future.

Returning to the Time Perspective concept, it has been also satisfactorily employed in labour contexts; still we should remark that even being present in the psychological literature for several decades, it has only recently been introduced in organizational researches (Thoms & Blasko, 2004). Amongst the leadership processes, Thoms & Greenberger’s (1998) research shows how higher leader organizational visioning is strongly correlated with Future Time Perspective (r = .60, p < .01). This result is also confirmed by Thoms & Blasko (2004) (r = .73, p < .001) who propose a theoretical model that explains how Future Time Perspectives function as a temporal anchor in order to facilitate future visioning and consequently, allow the definition and pursuit of goals by organizational leaders. This interaction creates a link between personality

dimensions (self-efficacy, need for achievement, optimism and self-esteem) and organizational skills (planning, resource allocation and goal persistency, motivating subordinates, among others). In the motivational ambit, Van Der Maarel (2011) presents data supporting a profound and positive link between Future Time Perspective and Work Intrinsic Motivation. Also, Przepiórka (2010, July) reported that individuals who scored higher in Present Hedonist and Future Time Perspectives presented a strong intention to develop a business, while participants with higher values in Past Negative and Present Fatalist Time Perspectives, were those who presented a lack of intention in developing their own business. Furthermore Present Hedonist and Future were positively correlated with an intention to develop a business as well as concrete actions towards this objective, whilst Past Negative and Present Fatalist correlated with negatively with those constructs; the Past Positive did not present any relevant correlation.

Among the non-adaptive concepts of individuals’ cognitions and behaviours that affect the organizational processes, Time Perspective is still an important concept with important predictive capabilities. Gupta et al. (2012) have shown that four of the five Time Perspective dimensions of Zimbardo & Boyd’s (1999) model are statistical significant predictors of labour procrastination, with Present Hedonist as the only dimension that did not contribute satisfactorily to the model. Also important is the abovementioned work of Ferrari & Diaz-Morales (2007) regarding the relation between Time

Perspective and two types of Procrastination (Arousal and Avoidant). The premise of these results is how the future dimensions of Time Perspective are able to prevent procrastination; our understanding is that TP, being highly related to planning tasks, allows individuals to envision their future as well the necessary pathways to fulfil those same tasks, which facilitates the necessary cognitive and behavioural response. This defensive role of the Future dimensions against procrastination can be verified also in Sirois (2004), where a negative and moderate correlation is found between the Consideration of Future Consequences and general procrastination. Moreover the relation between the subjective future (regardless of how it is assessed or which component is considered) and procrastination cover several other aspects of psychological functioning since procrastinators thinks less about the future (Specter & Ferrari, 2000), usually prefer to attend or consider short-term needs or benefits versus long term (Baumeister & Scher, 1088; Strathman et al., 1994) and also show difficulties in delaying gratifications (Ferrari & Emmons, 1995).

Yet, considering all these studies and results about how individual characteristics affects organizational processes, both Shipp et al. (2009) and Strobel, Tumasjan, Spörrle & Welpe (2013) support that the present knowledge about the role of individuals’ cognitions about the future in their behaviour as employees is insufficient. Until now, studies have mainly explored how subjective time and more specifically concepts such as Time Focus or Time Perspective influence individual’s characteristics, and through this, affect

organizations. But, we believe that the impact of Time Perspective also goes beyond individuals’ lives and also directly affects the dynamics of these same groups or organizations. Future studies should also consider the relation of Time Perspective with the characteristics and processes inherent to jobs and organizations, for example: physical job conditions, performance and goal measurement, formal structure, organization size, amongst others. We believe that this possible association is a prolific ground to better understand organizational functioning because for example different job conditions (e.g.: safety and/or comfort) can stimulate employees’ organizational future thinking just as loyalty, OCB’s and planning just to mention a few, or indeed organizations that already offer these conditions can attract employees who already are future-oriented.