Mood and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t we e n a f f e c t and c o g n i t i o n i n p e r s i s t e n t g a m b l i n g .
S y l v i a A d c o c k
S u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e d e g r e e o f M a s t e r s o f C l i n i c a l P s y c h o l o g y , D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y ,
DECLARATION
I d e c l a r e t h a t t h i s t h e s i s r e p o r t s my o r i g i n a l w o r k , t h a t no p a r t o f i t has been p r e v i o u s l y a c c e p t e d o r p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e awa r d o f any d e g r e e o r d i p l o m a by any U n i v e r s i t y , and t o t h e b e s t o f my k n o w l e d g e no m a t e r i a l p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d o r w r i t t e n by a n o t h e r
T h i s t h e s i s d e s c r i b e s o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t by t h e a u t h o r i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y o f t h e A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y d u r i n g
1 9 8 3
.
T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s
P a g e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ü
A B S T R A C T i i i
CHA P T E R 1 I N T R O D U C T I O N
1 . 1 1 n t r o d u c t i o n 1
1 . 2 A r o u s a l a s a F a c t o r i n G a m b l i n g 9
1 . 3 C o g n i t i o n i n G a m b l i n g 13
1 . 4 I l l u s i o n o f C o n t r o l 14
1 . 5 L o c u s o f C o n t r o l 15
1 . 6 R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n A f f e c t
a n d C o g n i t i o n
17
1 . 7 I n d u c e d M o o d a n d I l l u s i o n o f
C o n t r o l
2 2
1 . 8 P r o p o s e d M o d e l 26
CH A P T E R 2 METHOD 2 8
CHA P T E R 3 R E S UL T S 3 3
A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
I s h o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k my s u p e r v i s o r Dr J a c q u i Holman f o r h e r h e l p and a d v i c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r .
My a p p r e c i a t i o n a l s o t o Dr Mar k D i c k e r s o n f o r h i s a d v i c e and s u p p o r t , Mrs M e r r a n H u n t l e y f o r t y p i n g , Mr Ross Cunni ngham f o r s t a t i s t i c a l a d v i c e and J a c k i e , Adam and B e r n a r d f o r t h e i r d e d i c a t e d l i c k i n g and
s t i c k i n g .
Abstract
A model to explain persistence among regular gamblers was proposed which suggested that arousal experienced during gambling elicits an illusion of control leading to overestimation of the probab
ility of winning. It was suggested that a prior disturbed mood could retard the habituation of such arousal and thus expose the gambler to an illusion of control for longer periods. Habitual experience of this phenomenon could account for persistence in the face of repeated losses
in regular gamblers. Following the collection of baseline data on mood, arousal and estimates of personal success, each subject was required to play in a club with a minimum of $4 (40 responses on a 10c machine). Subjects were then given the choice of continuing to play with their
winnings and a further $2 or stopping and taking the $2 plus any winnings. Self report measures of arousal and estimates of success were obtained every 20 responses during the gambling session. Responses and wins were recorded throughout the session.
1
I n t r o d u c t i o n
Most p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e i n some f o r m o f g a m b l i n g d u r i n g t h e i r l i f e t i m e . I t i s an a n c i e n t and w i d e s p r e a d p a s t i m e g o i n g back as e a r l y as 3000BC w h e r e i t f i g u r e d i n E g y p t i a n m y t h o l o g y . A d d i t i o n a l l y , i t i s
r e f e r r e d t o i n e a r l y I n d i a n m a n u s c r i p t s , i s p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l h i s t o r y o f e a r l y Japan and C hi na and t h e m y t h o l o g y and h i s t o r y o f a n c i e n t Gr eec e and Rome.
Many t h e o r i e s have been a d v a n c e d t o e x p l a i n t h i s a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l p r a c t i c e , r a n g i n g f r o m s o c i o l o g i c a l , d e c i s i o n t h e o r y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s o r p s y c h o d y n a m i c t h e o r y .
The g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e do n o t e x p e r i e n c e p r o b l e m s as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r g a m b l i n g b u t a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e d o . Who t h e s e p e o p l e a r e and how t h e y can be d e f i n e d , i f a t a l l , i s t h e p r i m a r y c o n c e r n o f t h i s r e v i e w .
1. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f H i g h F r e q u e n c y Ga mb l er s
When g a m b l e r s e n c o u n t e r s uc h h e a v y f i n a n c i a l l o s s e s t h a t t h e y s ee k h e l p f r o m Ga mb l er s Anonymou s, p s y c h o l o g i s t s o r p s y c h i a t r i s t s , t h e n t h e y have u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d t h e m s e l v e s as p r o b l e m g a m b l e r s . Heavy and p e r s i s t e n t g a m b l i n g may have n e g a t i v e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w o r k s i t u a t i o n a n d / o r b r o u g h t them i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l a w . When t h e y have e x h a u s t e d a l l p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f f u n d s and d e b t s a r e a c c u m u l a t i n g , t h e n t h e y e i t h e r se e k t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e h e l p i n g s e r v i c e s
2. C a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f Ga m b l e r s
The l i t e r a t u r e t y p i c a l l y l a b e l s h e a v y g a m b l e r s a s : p a t h o l o g i c a l - C u s t e r , 1 982; M o r a n , 1975;
S k i n n e r , 1953; DSM-111, 1980 ( s e e A p p e n d i x 11) c o m p u l s i v e - B e r g l e r , 1 957; B l a s z c z y n s k i ,
McConaghy, A r m s t r o n g and A l l c o c k , 1982; D i c k e r s o n and
Weeks, 1 9 7 9 ; P o k o r n y , 1972; S e a g e r , 1970.
o r a d d i c t s - K o l l e r , 1 972; K u s y s z y n , 1972.
T h e r e i s g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s among w r i t e r s t h a t t h e mo s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f s u c h g a m b l e r s i s t h e e x p e r i e n c i n g o f an o v e r w h e l m -
i n g d e s i r e t o b e t . D e f i n i t i o n s have t e n d e d t o v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l t h e o r e t i c a l v i e w p o i n t s and l i t t l e a t t e m p t has been made t o a d e q u a t e l y o p e r a t i o n a l i s e d e f i n i t i o n s o f " c o m p u l s i v e " e t c . g a m b l e r s . T h i s p a p e r w i l l e m p l o y t h e t e r m " c o m p u l s i v e " f o r g a m b l e r s who ha v e
s o u g h t t r e a t m e n t o r h e l p . P e o p l e who g a m b l e t h r e e o r more t i m e s a week s h a l l be c a l l e d " r e g u l a r " , " h i g h f r e q u e n c y " o r " h a b i t u a l " g a m b l e r s . T h i s i s a p r a g m a t i c d e f i n i t i o n w h i c h does n o t i m p l y any s p e c i a l t h e o r e t i c a l p o s i t i o n , s e r v i n g o n l y t o f a c i l i t a t e q u e s t i o n s w h i c h e x p l o r e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t ween c o m p u l s i v e and r e g u l a r g a m b l e r s .
3. F r e q u e n c y E s t i m a t e s o f G a m b l e r s
-3
U . S . A . 1 , 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 , U. K. 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 and A u s t r a l i a 8 0 , 0 0 0 ( Co m m i s s i o n on t h e R ev i e w o f t h e N a t i o n a l P o l i c y t o w a r d G a m b l i ng , 1 9 7 6 ) .
h. Age o f Ga mb l er s
The a v e r a g e age o f c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s w h e t h e r t a k e n f r o m Ga m b l e r s Anonymous, s u r v e y s o r t r e a t m e n t pr ogr ammes i s m i d - t h i r t i e s b u t t h e r an g e i s f r o m 20 t o 71 y e a r s ( B l a s z c z y n s k i e t a l . , 1 9 8 2 ) . The a v e r a g e age o f p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y e r s ( a r o u n d 40 y e a r s ) t e n d s t o be s i i g h t l y h i g h e r .
5. Sex o f Ga mb l er s
As many women g a m b l e as men a t l o w f r e q u e n c i e s . However t h e number o f women i n t h e h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y c a t e g o r i e s i s f a r l e s s . T h i s
i s n o t t r u e f o r a l l f o r m s o f g a m b l i n g s i n c e t h e r a t i o i s a t l e a s t 5 0 : 5 0 among h i g h - f r e q u e n c y p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y e r s . In t h e U . K . and
A u s t r a l i a f e m a l e m e m b e r s h i p o f Ga m b l e r s Anonymous ( a l m o s t e n t i r e l y p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y e r s ) t e n d s t o be much l o w e r t h a n m a l e , 1-2% i n U. K. and 5 "
10% i n A u s t r a l i a ( D i c k e r s o n , i n p r e s s ) .
6. S o c i o - e c o n o m i c S t a t u s o f G a mb l er s
S o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s t e n d s t o v a r y w i t h d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f g a m b l i n g . O b v i o u s l y i n s uc h s e t t i n g s as c a s i n o s t h e need f o r r e a d y c a s h and f l e x i b l e w o r k i n g t i m e s t o i n d u l g e i n h e a v y g a m b l i n g means t h a t r e g u l a r s come f r o m b a c k g r o u n d s w i t h t h i s f l e x i b i l i t y e . g . b u s i n e s s men, b o o k i e s , l a n d l o r d s as wel 1 as t h e v e r y r i c h ( Ol dma n , ’\ 3 1 h ) .
7- P e r s o n a l i t y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Gamb l e r s
R e s u l t s o f s t u d i e s i n t h i s a r e a a r e c o n f l i c t i n g and w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Wong ( 1 9 8 0 ) and M a l k i n (1981) h a v e n o t i n c l u d e d c o n t r o l g r o u p d a t a . Some w r i t e r s a r e p r e p a r e d t o c o mmi t t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e c l a i m t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n t y p e s o f p e o p l e who a r e p r e d i s p o s e d t o b e c o mi n g c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s by v i r t u e o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s . Fo r e x a m p l e , C u s t e r ( 1 9 8 2 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as s u p e r i o r i n t e l l i g e n c e and v i g o r o u s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s w e r e t y p i c a l t r a i t s . H o w e v e r ,
M a l k i n ( 1 9 8 1 ) ma t c h e d m a l e Ga mb l e r s Anonymous member s and s o c i a l g a m b l e r s on age and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s . No d i f f e r e n c e was f o u n d on l o c u s o f c o n t r o l o r t h e M y e r s - B r i g g s q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( M y e r s , 1982) w h i c h mea s u r e s e x t r a v e r s i o n - i n t r o v e r s i o n , s e n s a t i o n - i n t u i t i o n , t h i n k i n g - f e e l i n g and j u d g i n g - p e r c e p t u a 1 d i m e n s i o n s . R e c e n t l y t h e r e has been some e v i d e n c e
l i n k i n g h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l i n g w i t h Z u c k e r m a n ' s s e n s a t i o n - s e e k i n g d i m e n s i o n ( A n d e r s o n and B r o w n , 1983) .
I n t h e v i e w o f t h e c o n f l i c t i n g f i n d i n g s a r i s i n g o u t o f m a i n l y p o o r l y d e s i g n e d r e s e a r c h , i t seems p r e m a t u r e t o s u g g e s t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a p r e - m o r b i d g a m b l i n g p e r s o n a l i t y .
8. Ga mb l i n g P r e f e r e n c e s
I t i s e x t r e m e l y r a r e f o r c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s t o p r e f e r s l o w t u r n o v e r and s l o w r e t u r n g a m b l i n g s u c h as r a f f l e s , l o t t e r i e s and f o o t b a l l p o o l s . The d a n g e r t h e r e f o r e i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d as l y i n g i n a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h p r o v i d e r a p i d and f r e q u e n t g a m b l i n g s e q u e n c e s . The b e s t e x a mp l e o f t h i s i s p o k e r m a c h i n e s w h i c h h a v e o b v i o u s l y been s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d
5
9. V a r i e t y o f G a m b l i n g Forms
T h e r e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y c l e a r e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h e p o p u l a r l y h e l d v i e w t h a t c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s w i l l p u t t h e i r money on a n y t h i n g . I n d e e d , t h e r e i s some e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w
( D i c k e r s o n , 197*0 n a m e l y t h a t a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s may c o n s i s t e n t l y use o n l y one f o r m o f g a m b l i n g .
10. S t y l e o f G a m b l i n g
T h e r e i s some e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t c o m p u l s i v e p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y e r s t e n d t o us e s e v e r a l m a c h i n e s a t o n c e ( D i c k e r s o n , i n p r e s s ) . Kat
( 197* 0 and Oldman ( 1 9 7 * 0 n o t i c e d t h a t r e g u l a r and h e a v y g a m b l e r s p r e f e r r e d t o p l a c e t h e i r b e t s a t t h e l a s t moment when p l a y i n g r o u l e t t e . T h i s
phenomenon o f l a t e b e t t i n g was a l s o n o t e d by D i c k e r s o n , 197*+ (and c o n f i r m e d by W r a y , 1 980, u n p u b l i s h e d t h e s i s ; S a u n d e r s , 1981) i n h i s s t u d y o f b e t t i n g shop b e h a v i o u r . D i c k e r s o n f o u n d t h a t b o t h c o m p u l s i v e and
h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s p r e f e r r e d t o p l a c e s i n g l e b e t s as l a t e as p o s s i b l e b e f o r e t h e " o f f " s i g n a l . A n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y and c o m p u l s i v e b e t t i n g s t y l e i s i t s a n t i - s o c i a l n a t u r e . S o c i a l i s i n g and c o n v e r s a t i o n a r e m i n i m a l and s u p e r f i c i a l . Members o f Ga m b l e r s Anonymous
r e p o r t t h a t t h e y t e n d e d t o v i e w c o n t a c t w i t h f r i e n d s as b e i n g e i t h e r an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h o s e f r i e n d s t o b o r r o w money o r t o f i n d o u t how much
t h e y w e r e l o s i n g . E i t h e r way t h e e x p e r i e n c e was t o be a v o i d e d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , s uc h a t o t a l c o m mi t m e n t t o b e t t i n g w o u l d r e q u i r e a g r e a t d e a l o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n . S o c i a l i s i n g w o u l d be an i n t e r r u p t i o n .
11. Amount o f Ti me S p e n t G a m b l i n g
Dat a has been c o l l e c t e d f r o m h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f f - c o u r s e b e t t e r s i n b e t t i n g o f f i c e s and c o mp a r ed t o s e l f - r e p o r t d a t a f r o m Ga m b l e r s
b
betting. Over 80% of both groups reported betting on six or more races, staying on the premises for two or more hours and repeating this pattern on as many days as possible through each week (Dickerson, 197*0- Roulette players falling into the heavy gambling category play several hours each night (Oldman, 197*0- High frequency and compulsive gamblers may spend between 15 and 30 hours per week gambling and this pattern may be
maintained for more than ten years (Dickerson,
197*0-12. Money Spent on Gambling
The size of debts reported by compulsive gamblers at the time of seeking help has been reported to range from $100 to $35,000 in Australia (B1aszczynski, et al., 1982). Overseas figures range from £350 to an average high of £1,200 for Gamblers Anonymous members in
Scotland (Brown, 1973) and from $15,000 to $80,000 among U.S.A. clients of a University Compulsive Gambling Counselling Centre (Politzer and Morrow, 1980).
There are no data on the size of debts which regular gamblers generally incur but Dickerson (197*0 found that 56% of high frequency off-course betters reported having gambling debts. Oldman (1978) observed that regular customers at the casino where he worked as a croupier lost an average of <35 per week. Taking into account the occasional windfall there would have to be weeks when losses totalled <350. Most people would experience financial problems under such con ditions. Oldman concluded that the only difference between high frequency gamblers and compulsive gamblers was the greater vulnerability of the
7
E s t i m a t e s o f a v e r a g e l o s s e s on A u s t r a l i a n p o k e r m a c h i n e s can be d e r i v e d f r o m C a l d w e l l ' s ( 1 9 7 2 ) f i g u r e s by a p p l y i n g t h e skewed d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g a m b l i n g e x p e n d i t u r e shown by t h e R o t h s c h i l d R e p o r t ( Her M a j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n a r y O f f i c e , 1 9 7 8 ) . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2% o f p l a y e r s w o u l d
l o s e a b o u t $ 1 , 0 0 0 p e r annum. T h i s i s t e n t i m e s w h a t t h e a v e r a g e c l u b member l o s e s p e r annum on t h e p o k e r m a c h i n e s , u s u a l l y t h e o n l y s t a t i s t i c a v a i l a b l e . I t w o u l d , o f c o u r s e , be n e c e s s a r y t o m a g n i f y t h i s f i g u r e g r e a t l y t o o b t a i n an i d e a o f p r e s e n t day l o s s e s on p o k e r m a c h i n e s .
One t h i n g w h i c h seems t o emer ge c l e a r l y f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n t h i s a r e a i s t h a t h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l i n g needs t o be v e r y c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d i f t h e g a m b l e r i s t o a v o i d t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g e x p e n d i t u r e w h i c h may l e a d t o f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s .
13. E a r l y Wins
I t has been s u g g e s t e d t h a t a b i g w i n e a r l y i n t h e c a r e e r o f a g a m b l e r may be a f a c t o r i n t h e p r o g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l i n g
( B o l e n and Boyd, 1968; C u s t e r , 1 9 8 2 ) . D i c k e r s o n ( 197*0 n o t e d t h a t 12% o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y o f f - c o u r s e b e t t e r s r e p o r t e d a l a r g e w i n o r good l u c k e a r l y i n t h e i r b e t t i n g c a r e e r s .
A c a r e f u l a p p r a i s a l o f c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h h i g h f r e q u e n c y and c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s f r o m l o w f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f o r m e r g r o u p use l a r g e s t a k e s ,
i n c u r d e b t s and t e n d t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d b e g i n n e r ' s l u c k . S u r p r i s i n g 1y , d i f f e r e n c e s b e t we e n h i g h f r e q u e n c y and c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s a r e f e w . In many r e s p e c t s t h e i r g a m b l i n g p a t t e r n s a r e t h e same b u t t h o s e s e e k i n g h e l p t e n d t o use 1 a r g e r s t a k e s and i n c u r l a r g e r d e b t s .
8
be i n i t i a t e d f o r a number o f d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s e . g . c o u r t r ecommendat i on,
f i n a n c i a l p r o b l e ms , p r e s s u r e from s p o u s e , c l o s e f r i e n d o r e mpl oyer .
F u r t h e r mo r e , v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s i s h a r d l y a v a l i d r e a s o n
f o r empl oyi ng l a b e l s such as " c o m p u l s i v e " , " p a t h o l o g i c a l " o r " a d d i c t i v e "
which c a r r y s t r o n g ment al i l l n e s s c o n n o t a t i o n s .
The l i m i t e d e v i d e n c e would seem t o s u p p o r t an h y p o t h e s i s t h a t
s u b j e c t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s in m a i n t a i n i n g s e l f c o n t r o l a r e c e n t r a l t o t h e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e phenomenon o f p e r s i s t e n c e in t h e f a c e o f heavy f i n
a n c i a l l o s s e s ( D i c k e r s o n , in p r e s s ) .
F o c u s s i n g on t h i s i s s u e may be a
u s e f u l a p p r o a c h in t h e s t u d y o f d i f f e r e n t gambl i ng p a t t e r n s .
C e r t a i n l y
i t seems i n t u i t i v e l y l o g i c a l t h a t t h e e x t e n t o f l o s s o f c o n t r o l o ver
amount and f r e q u e n c y o f b e t t i n g w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e more a gambl er b e t s .
The more p e o p l e gambl e, t h e more t h e y a r e a t r i s k .
High f r e q u e n c y
gamb l e r s may r ange a l o n g t h i s d i me ns i on o f s e l f c o n t r o l w i t h e x t r e me
c o n t r o l shown by p r o f e s s i o n a l g a mb l e r s a t one end and t h o s e w i t h l i t t l e
or no c o n t r o l ( b e i n g t h o s e more l i k e l y t o e x p e r i e n c e c r i s i s and s eek
h e l p ) a t t h e o t h e r ( D i c k e r s o n , in p r e s s ) .
Loss of c o n t r o l may i ndeed be an i mp o r t a n t f a c t o r in s t u d y i n g
hi gh f r e q u e n c y gambl i ng y e t t h i s f a c t o r does not e x p l a i n why some
i n d i v i d u a l s p u r s u e a c c e l e r a t i n g e x p e n d i t u r e p a t t e r n s and o t h e r s a r e a b l e
t o r e s t r i c t t h e i r s p e n d i n g t o $5 pe r week f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e i r l i v e s .
Very l i t t l e r e s e a r c h has been done on t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f gambl i ng in t h e
f a c e o f v er y a d v e r s e c o n s e q u e n c e s .
Se v er al r e s e a r c h e r s have n o t e d t h a t gambl i ng i s g e n e r a l l y an
e x t r e m e l y a r o u s i n g e x p e r i e n c e ( C u s t e r , 1982; Di c k e r s o n , 197^; Moran, 1970;
Newman, 1972; Oldman, 197^) .
Wi t h r e s p e c t t o c o mp u l s i v e poker machi ne
p l a y i n g , t h e e v i d e n c e i s ambiguous e . g . Bl a s z c z y n s k i (1982) n o t e d s t r o n g
p r e v e n t i o n w h e r e a s C a l d w e l l ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e p o r t e d no o u t w a r d s i g n s o f e m o t i o n among s uc h p l a y e r s .
L a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o f a r o u s a l d u r i n g p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g i n d i c a t e t h a t h e a r t r a t e i n c r e a s e s and i n c r e a s e s more i n h e a v i e r g a m b l e r s ( L e a r y , 1982, u n p u b l i s h e d t h e s i s ) . T h i s e f f e c t has r e c e n t l y been shown t o be much g r e a t e r i n n a t u r a l c l u b s e t t i n g s ( A n d e r s o n and B r o w n , 1983)
-L i t t l e i s y e t known a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f h i g h a r o u s a l on g a m b l i n g b e h a v i o u r . I t seems u n l i k e l y t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r c e p t i o n o f a r o u s a l can a c c o u n t f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p e r s i s t e n t and a c c e l e r a t
i n g g a m b l i n g p a t t e r n s . I n d e e d r e g u l a r g a m b l e r s showed a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r r i s e i n h e a r t r a t e me a s u r ed b o t h p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y and s u b j e c t i v e l y
( L e a r y , 1982, u n p u b l i s h e d t h e s i s ) . A r o u s a l may, h o w e v e r , i n f l u e n c e t h e c o g n i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g a m b l i n g i n such a way as t o e n h a n c e t h e c h a n c e s o f p e r s i s t e n c e . I t w o u l d seem t o be p r o d u c t i v e t o l o o k a t a r o u s a l l e v e l s i n g a m b l e r s and t o c o n s i d e r i n w h a t w a y s , i f a n y , t h e y
i n f l u e n c e t h e k i n d s o f j u d g e m e n t s w h i c h m i g h t f a c i l i t a t e g r e a t e r e x p e n d i t u r e w i t h e v e r i n c r e a s i n g l o s s e s .
AROUSAL AS A FACTOR IN GAMBLING
G a m b l i ng i s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e s u c c e s s and e x c i t e ment w h i c h i s f r e q u e n t l y m i s s i n g f r o m p e o p l e ' s l i v e s . W h i l e t h i s c h a n c e o f s u c c e s s i s l a r g e l y i l l u s o r y , a p p a r e n t l y i t s l u r e does n o t d i m i n i s h as a r e s u l t ( B l o c h , 1951; C a l l o i s , 1 9 6 2 ; C a l d w e l l , 1 9 7 2 ) . The n o t i o n t h a t g a m b l i n g i s an a r o u s i n g e x p e r i e n c e i s g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . Such a r o u s a l has b e e n c a l l e d p l e a s u r a b l e - p a i n f u l t e n s i o n
10
d e s c r i b e s t h e a r o u s a l e x p e r i e n c e d d u r i n g g a m b l i n g as a "Mood s t a t e , a peak e x p e r i e n c e , a t r a n c e , a h i g h , o r even a m y s t i c s t a t e " ( K u s y s z y n ,
1 9 7 6 ) .
A p p a r e n t l y , t h o s e p e o p l e who g a mb l e f r e q u e n t l y do e x p e r i e n c e h i g h a r o u s a l . V a r i o u s s t u d i e s have d e s c r i b e d a r a n g e o f b e h a v i o u r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g a m b l i n g s uc h as c o n c e n t r a t e d l i s t e n i n g , p a c i n g , f i d g e t i n g , t e n s i o n , p a l l o r , s h o u t i n g and w i l d e x c i t e m e n t ( D i c k e r s o n , 197*+; Mo r an , 1970; Newman, 1972; and Ol dman, 197*+)- F u r t h e r m o r e , D i c k e r s o n
(197*+) r e p o r t e d t h a t b e t t i n g shop c u s t o m e r s d e s c r i b e d e x p e r i e n c i n g v a r i o u s p h y s i c a l symptoms such as t a c h y c a r d i a , s w e a t i n g , m u s c l e t e n s i o n and s t o ma c h c r amp s w h i l e l i s t e n i n g t o r a c e c o m m e n t a r i e s . As n o t e d e a r l i e r , B l a s z c z y n s k i ( 1 9 8 2 ) a l s o o b s e r v e d t h e s e symptoms i n p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y e r s .
O b s e r v a b l e b e h a v i o u r a l s i g n s o f a r o u s a l v a r y f r o m one f o r m o f g a m b l i n g t o a n o t h e r . O b v i o u s l y e x c e s s i v e d i s p l a y s o f e x c i t e m e n t a r e more a c c e p t a b l e on t h e r a c e c o u r s e t h a n i n t h e c a s i n o o r c l u b s e t t i n g and w o u l d be q u i t e i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n a p o k e r game. Hence, b e h a v i o u r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n a l o n e i s n o t a s u f f i c i e n t i n d i c a t o r o f a r o u s a l d u r i n g g a m b l i n g . Wray
(1980) , t h e o n l y r e s e a r c h e r t o s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o l l e c t s u b j e c t i v e r e p o r t s f r o m c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s , c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m l e v e l o f g a m b l i n g
( i . e . j u s t p r i o r t o a t t e n d a n c e a t Ga m b l e r s Anonymous) was t y p i f i e d by " h i g h o r e x t r e m e e x c i t e m e n t " d u r i n g a r a c e ( r e p o r t e d by 70%). T h i s e x c i t e m e n t was a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e use o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s t a k e s i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e h i g h l e v e l . Not a l l g a m b l e r s r e p o r t e d t h i s e x p e r i e n c e , h o w e v e r , as 15% r e p o r t e d f e e l i n g " c a l m , o r a l i t t l e e x c i t e d " . P r e d i c t a b l y , w i n n i n g money i s a l s o an e x c i t i n g e v e n t f o r most p e o p l e . W r a y ' s s t u d y r e p o r t e d 78% f e e l i n g h appy o r e l a t e d on w i n n i n g w h i l e 10%
G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e n , i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t most c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l e r s f i n d g a m b l i n g an a r o u s i n g e x p e r i e n c e . Most r e s e a r c h t o d a t e , h o w e v e r , has r e l i e d on c l i n i c a l , o b s e r v a t i o n a l and s u b j e c t i v e s u p p o r t f o r t h i s c o n c l u s i o n . O n l y t h r e e s t u d i e s have t a k e n p h y s i o l o g i c a l
me a s u r e m e n t s o f a r o u s a l d u r i n g g a m b l i n g . F i r s t l y , R u l e and F i s c h e r ( 1970) i n a s t u d y o f r i s k - t a k i n g , used h e a r t r a t e as an i n d i c a t o r o f e m o t i o n a l a r o u s a l . They r e p o r t e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d a r o u s a l o c c u r r e d j u s t p r i o r t o b e t t i n g and was p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e amount o f money s t a k e d . These r e s u l t s a r e i m p r e s s i v e i n t h a t a r o u s a l was p r e s e n t d e s p i t e t h e f a c t
t h a t i t was an a n a l o g u e s t u d y u s i n g s t u d e n t s p l a y i n g f o r c h i p s r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r own money. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o g e n e r a l i s e f r o m such d a t a t o p o t e n t i a l a r o u s a l l e v e l s i n p e o p l e who g ambl e f r e q u e n t l y and who p e r s i s t when l o s i n g .
The e x t e n t t o w h i c h h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s e x p e r i e n c e h i g h a r o u s a l w h i l e g a m b l i n g was e x p l o r e d by L e a r y ( u n p u b l i s h e d t h e s i s , 1982) u s i n g b o t h p h y s i o l o g i c a l ( h e a r t r a t e ) and s u b j e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . L e a r y a l s o e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r e x p o s u r e t o r e l e v a n t s t i m u l i e . g . s ounds t y p i c a l o f c l u b s e t t i n g s s u c h as p o k e r m a c h i n e n o i s e s l e d t o i n c r e a s e d a r o u s a l i n t h i s g r o u p . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t d u r i n g p l a y on t h e p o k e r m a c h i n e s , h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s d i s p l a y e d g r e a t e r a r o u s a l on b o t h h e a r t r a t e and s u b j e c t i v e r a t i n g s t h a n d i d l o w f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s . E x p o s u r e t o r e l e v a n t s t i m u l i p r i o r t o g a m b l i n g d i d n o t p r o d u c e i n c r e a s e d a r o u s a l i n t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y g r o u p .
A r e c e n t s t u d y by A n d e r s o n and Brown ( 19 83) s u p p o r t s t h e f i n d i n g t h a t p e o p l e become a r o u s e d w h i l e g a m b l i n g . U s i n g a p o r t a b l e h e a r t r a t e p a c k t h e y w e r e a b l e t o compar e t h e ch a n g e i n h e a r t r a t e o f t wo
12
r e g u l a r b l a c k j a c k p l a y e r s w e r e a l s o o b s e r v e d i n t h e r e a l c l u b s e t t i n g . O n l y s m a l l h e a r t r a t e ch a n g e s w e r e o b s e r v e d i n b o t h g r o u p s i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y b u t s i g n i f i c a n t c ha n g e s w e r e r e c o r d e d i n t h e c l u b s e t t i n g , t h e maximum c hange b e i n g a d i f f e r e n c e o f 53 b e a t s p e r m i n u t e . S i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e f o u n d b e t we e n h e a r t r a t e and s t a k e s i z e . These
r e s u l t s p r o v i d e d t h e f i r s t p h y s i o l o g i c a l d a t a s u p p o r t i n g t h e g e n e r a l l y h e l d v i e w t h a t h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s e x p e r i e n c e h i g h l e v e l s o f a r o u s a l .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , a number o f i s s u e s r e g a r d i n g t h e e f f e c t and i m p o r t a n c e o f a r o u s a l r e m a i n u n e x p l o r e d . The e x i s t e n c e o f a r o u s a l does n o t i n i t s e l f e x p l a i n p e r s i s t e n t g a m b l i n g and s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s need a n s w e r i n g :
-1) Does t h e a w a r e n e s s o f e x c i t e m e n t a l o n e a c c o u n t f o r g a m b l i n g and t h e r e f o r e t h e g r e a t e r e x c i t e m e n t and a w a r e n e s s o f i t t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e s i r e t o p r o l o n g t h e s e n s a t i o n by g a m b l i n g more?
2) In h i g h f r e q u e n c y p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g why a r e t h e n o r ma l h a b i t u a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n t h e f a c e o f such o b v i o u s r e p e t i t i o n o f s t i m u l i n o t o p e r a t i n g f o r some p e o p l e t o p r o d u c e a c o n s e q u e n t d r o p i n a r o u s a l and o n s e t o f boredom? D i c k e r s o n (.197*0 s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n e x c i t e m e n t p u n t e r s f r e q u e n t l y r a i s e t h e s t a k e s w h i l e b e t t i n g . A r e t h e r e e q u i v a l e n t a r o u s a l m a i n t a i n i n g s t r a t e g i e s
i n p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g s uc h as p l a y i n g more t h a n one m a c h i n e , o r p l a y i n g f o r l o n g enough t o i n c u r
3) F i n a l l y , w h a t e f f e c t does a r o u s a l o r e l e v a t e d mood have on a g a m b l e r ' s e s t i m a t e s o f w i n n i n g ? No w o r k has been done on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t ween a f f e c t and c o g n i t i o n and t h e c o n s e q u e n t e f f e c t , i f a n y , on g a m b l i n g b e h a v i o u r .
COGNITION IN GAMBLING
The t h o u g h t s and b e l i e f s o f g a m b l e r s have r e c e i v e d l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i n t h e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e . The b a s i c q u e s t i o n s o f c o n c e r n i n t h i s a r e a a r e w h a t p a r t do c o g n i t i o n s p l a y i n m o t i v a t i n g b e h a v i o u r and t o w h a t e x t e n t do t h e y e x t e n d o u r k n o w l e d g e o f why p e o p l e g a mb l e and why t h e y may p e r s i s t . The r o l e o f c o g n i t i o n i n g a m b l i n g i s c l e a r l y a c o m p l e x one and r a i s e s many i m p o r t a n t c o n c e p t u a l i s s u e s .
E x p l a n a t i o n s h a v e r a n g e d f r o m E d w a r d s ' ( 1 9 5 5 ) model o f r a t i o n a l man m a k i n g d e c i s i o n s on t h e b a s i s o f e s t i m a t e d re l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n p r o b a b i l i t y and d e s i r a b l e g o a l s and t h e i r r a t i o n a l phenomenon o f an " i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l " as o b s e r v e d by L a n g e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) - U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e f o u r m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l s d e v i s e d by Edwar ds f r o m l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s w i t h s t u d e n t s f a i l t o e x p l a i n t h e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s i n r e a l w o r l d g a m b l i n g
I LLUSI ON OF CONTROL
L a n g e r ( 1 9 7 5 ) d e f i n e d i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l as " a n e x p e c t a n c y o f a p e r s o n a ] s u c c e s s p r o b a b i l i t y i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e o b j e c t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y w o u l d w a r r a n t " ( p . 3 1 1 ) - She s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i l l u s i o n can be i n d u c e d i n c h a n c e s i t u a t i o n s by i n t r o d u c i n g s k i 11 - r e 1a t e d f a c t o r s such as c h o i c e , s t i m u l u s o r r e s p o n s e f a m i l i a r i t y , p a s s i v e o r a c t i v e i n v o l v e ment o r c o m p e t i t i o n . In such s i t u a t i o n s , p a r t i c i p a n t s e n c o u r a g e d o r a l l o w e d t o e n gag e i n su c h s k i l l b e h a v i o u r s w i l l t e n d t o d e v e l o p a s k i l l o r i e n t a t i o n . T h a t i s , t h e y have an " i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l " and r e s p o n d w i t h b e h a v i o u r mor e a p p r o p r i a t e t o a s k i l l d e t e r m i n e d e v e n t .
In a s e r i e s o f s i x e x p e r i m e n t s , L a n g e r e x p l o r e d v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h i s phenomenon. T h i s w o r k e x a m i n e d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f p e o p l e i n
n a t u r a l i s t i c s i t u a t i o n s and t h u s r e p r e s e n t s a r a r e e x a m p l e o f e c o l o g i c a l l y v a l i d r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f g a m b l i n g . The d e v e l o p m e n t o f an " i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l " has n o t been r e p l i c a t e d i n l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i ment s ( L a d o u c e u r and M a y r a t i d , 1981) b u t L a n g e r has a r g u e d t h a t when a p e r s o n i s a c t u a l l y i n t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t we e n t h e c h a n c e and s k i l l s i t u a t i o n s i s g r e a t e r and t h e r e f o r e t h e i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l w i l l be g r e a t e r . I t may b e , o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e a b o v e n o t e d d i f f e r e n c e
i n a r o u s a l l e v e l s i n l a b o r a t o r y and r e a l - l i f e s e t t i n g s i s r e s p o n s i b l e i n some way f o r t h i s f i n d i n g . The a r o u s e d g a m b l e r may be l e s s a b l e t o r e t a i n a j u d g e m e n t o f s k i l l / c h a n c e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c l u b s e t t i n g , t h e r a c e c o u r s e o r t h e b e t t i n g o f f i c e . H e i g h t e n e d a r o u s a l may w e l l d i s t o r t w h a t a r e n o r m a l l y f a i r l y r a t i o n a l c o g n i t i v e a s s e s s m e n t s .
15
o f d i c e p l a y e r s r o l l i n g s o f t l y f o r l o w number s and h a r d f o r h i g h numbers was n o t e d by H e n s l i n ( 1 9 5 7 ) and a n o t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e o f t h e power o f t h e i l l u s i o n i s shown i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t s o f S t r i c k l a n d , L e w i c k i and K a t z ( 1 9 5 6 ) . P a r t i c i p a n t s p l a c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r b e t s when b e t t i n g b e f o r e r o l l i n g t h e d i c e t h a n when p l a c i n g b e t s a f t e r t h r o w i n g b u t n o t s e e i n g t h e r e s u l t s ( i . e . b l i n d f o l d e d ) .
The w o r k i n t h i s a r e a has i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c o m m e r c i a l e x p l o i t a t i o n e . g . t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s k i l l o r t h e i l l u s i o n o f s k i l l
i n t o p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g i s l i k e l y t o g e n e r a t e h i g h e r r a t e s o f p l a y i n g .
LOCUS OF CONTROL
A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f s k i l l v e r s u s c h a n c e o r i e n t a t i o n i s f o u n d i n t h e c o n c e p t o f l o c u s o f c o n t r o l ( R o t t e r , 19 6 6) . T h i s i s an a r e a t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e g a m b l i n g r e s e a r c h . E s s e n t i a l l y l o c u s o f c o n t r o l i s a g e n e r a l i s e d c o g n i t i v e s e t o r s t y l e w h i c h d e f i n e s w h e t h e r o r n o t p e o p l e a t t r i b u t e o u t c o m e s as c o n t i n g e n t on t h e i r own e f f o r t s , s k i l l s , a c t i o n s o r on c h a n c e , f a t e o r p o w e r f u l o t h e r s . The f o r m e r a r e known as " i n t e r n a l s " and t h e l a t t e r as " e x t e r n a l s " . In a p p l y
i n g t h e l o c u s o f c o n t r o l l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e p r o b l e m o f g a m b l i n g , t wo mai n s u g g e s t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e :
1) T h a t i n t e r n a l s may p r e f e r g a m b l i n g f o r m s w h i c h i n v o l v e mor e s k i l l e l e m e n t s w h i l e e x t e r n a l s p r e f e r mo r e c h a n c e e l e m e n t s .
2) S i n c e i n t e r n a l s may p e r c e i v e t h e o u t c o m e o f
g a m b l i n g as more d e p e n d e n t on t h e i r own s k i l l s t h e y may be mor e s u s c e p t i b l e t o an i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l and p e r s i s t g a m b l i n g .
L e v i t z ( 1 9 7 1 ) , h o w e v e r , f o u n d some s u p p o r t f o r t h e l a t t e r when he n o t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s who p e r s i s t e d l o n g e r a t a l a b o r a t o r y t a s k and l o s t most money we r e more l i k e l y t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e s u l t s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d by s k i l l t h a n by c h a n c e f a c t o r s .
Some d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e on t h e r e l a t i v e i n f l u e n c e o f p e r c e i v e d s k i l l v e r s u s c h a n c e on g a m b l i n g f r e q u e n c y f r o m D i c k e r s o n ' s (197* 0 s t u d y o f p u n t e r s i n a U. K. b e t t i n g s h o p . They w e r e a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e y v i e w e d t h e i r g a m b l i n g as s k i l f u l o r g o v e r n e d by c h a n c e ; 60% o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s r a t e d t h e i r b e t s e l e c t i o n as more t h a n 50% s k i l l . The m a j o r i t y o f l e s s f r e q u e n t b e t t e r s r a t e d t h e i r s e l e c t i o n as " a l l l u c k " o r l e s s t h a n 25% s k i l l . The o n l y s e x d i f f e r e n c e o c c u r r e d a t t h i s p o i n t w i t h a 11 t h e h i g h f r e q u e n c y women b e t t e r s e s t i m a t i n g t h a t t h e i r b e t s e l e c t i o n was g o v e r n e d m a i n l y by c h a n c e . When a s k e d t o r a t e t h e i r c h a n c e s o f w i n n i n g w i t h t h e b e t t i n g s l i p t h e y h e l d a t t h e moment, h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s w er e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o p t i m i s t i c . S k i l l and o p t i m i s m i n t e r a c t e d i n t h a t t h e l e s s b e t t e r s t h o u g h t t h e i r s e l e c t i o n s k i l f u l , t h e l e s s l i k e l y t h e y w e r e t o be s u r e o f w i n n i n g and v i c e v e r s a .
A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f s k i l l , o r t h e b e l i e f i n s k i l l , as a c omponent o f g a m b l i n g may be i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e use o f s y s t e m s i n g a m b l i n g . As Oldman (197*0 p o i n t e d o u t w i t h r e g a r d t o r o u l e t t e , t h e r e a r e many books on r o u l e t t e s y s t e m s w i t h s e d u c t i v e t i t l e s su c h as "How t o w i n a t R o u l e t t e " and much o f w ha t t h e y say makes sound s e n s e , e x c e p t f o r t h e i r t i t l e s .
Most " s y s t e m s " a r e s y s t e m s t h a t s l o w down t h e speed a t w h i c h t h e p u n t e r s t e a d i l y l o s e s h i s money. Some games such as b l a c k j a c k do c o n t a i n an e l e m e n t o f s k i l l and h e r e some s o r t o f c o u n t i n g s y s t e m can h e l p t h e s k i l f u l p l a y e r .
17
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e comes a p o i n t i n a g a m b l e r ' s c a r e e r when i t makes sound s e n s e t o i n v e s t l a r g e a mount s o f money i n o r d e r t o r e c o u p f o r m e r
l o s s e s , i . e . he comes t o b e l i e v e t h a t c h a s i n g i s t h e c o r r e c t t h i n g t o do. I n e f f e c t t h e g a m b l e r has r e a c h e d a p o s i t i o n by a s e r i e s o f d i s a s t e r s w h e r e b y t h e r e a r e no r e m a i n i n g o p t i o n s . A t t h i s p o i n t he o r s h e may f a c e
b a n k r u p t c y , p r i s o n , l o s s o f j o b , e t c . , u n l e s s money can be f o u n d i m m e d i a t e l y . Somet i mes a m o d e l l i n g e f f e c t may h a v e t a k e n p l a c e . The g a m b l e r may ha v e seen o t h e r s redeem a d e s p e r a t e s i t u a t i o n w i t h t h e o c c a s i o n a l
l u c k y w i n . P o s s i b l y g a m b l e r s who a r e n o t so d e s p e r a t e l y i n d e b t r e t a i n t h e e l e m e n t s o f l o g i c and r a t i o n a l i t y i n t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e l i k e l i hood o f s c o r i n g a “ b i g w i n " and r e p o r t t h a t “ c h a s i n g " by b e t t i n g more and more money t o r e c o u p l o s s e s i s “ s t u p i d " .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t w h e t h e r o r n o t some o r a l l h i g h f r e q u e n c y g a m b l e r s f a c i n g d e b t e x p e r i e n c e t h e “ c h a s i n g " u r g e t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x t e n t . N e i t h e r a r e t h e r e d e t a i l s a v a i l a b l e on t h e e x a c t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n t e r m s o f f i n a n c i a l , e m o t i o n a l and c o g n i t i v e s t a t e s f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e c h a s i n g u r g e . F i n a l l y t h e r e has been no r e s e a r c h
i n t h e a r e a o f g a m b l i n g e x a m i n i n g t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a f f e c t and c o g n i t i o n . T h i s m e r i t s e x p l o r a t i o n and may w e l l h a v e a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o make t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p e r s i s t e n c e a t g a m b l i n g when l o s i n g .
THE R E L A T I O N S H I P BETWEEN A F F E C T AND C O G N I T I O N S
18
A r e c e n t p a p e r by Z a j o n c ( 1 9 8 0 ) has p r o v o k e d c o n t r o v e r s y b e t we e n t h o s e who s u p p o r t W u n d t ' s v i e w and t h o s e who a d o p t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e p o s i t i o n . E s s e n t i a l l y , Z a j o n c a r g u e d t h a t i n o r d e r t o a r o u s e e m o t i o n o f any k i n d i n an i n d i v i d u a l a s t i m u l u s needs t o be t h o u g h t a b o u t v e r y l i t t l e ,
i n f a c t m i n i m a l l y . He c i t e d and s u p p o r t e d W u n d t ' s b e l i e f t h a t a f f e c t a l w a y s a c c o m pa n i e s t h o u g h t w h e r e a s t h e c o n v e r s e i s n o t t r u e . A d d i t i o n a l l y Z a j o n c made a number o f s t r o n g a s s e r t i o n s . Some o f them w e r e as f o l l o w s :
-a) A f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s a r e p r i m a r y
Z a j o n c r e f e r s t o t h e e x p o s u r e e f f e c t s t u d i e s f o r e m p i r i c a l s u p p o r t o f h i s v i e w t h a t a f f e c t i s p r i m a r y . A l t h o u g h e a r l y s t u d i e s ( H a r r i s o n , 1968; Z a j o n c , 1968) seemed t o i n d i c a t e c o n s i s t e n t l y t h a t an i n c r e a s i n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r o b j e c t s can be i n d u c e d by mere e x p o s u r e , e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h i s phenomenon t e n d e d t o f a v o u r t h e p r e s e n c e o f p r i o r c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s ( B e r l y n e , 1970; H a r r i s o n , 1968; T i t c h e n e r , 1 9 1 0 ) . H ow e v er s u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r o l e o f r e c o g n i t i o n had been o v e r - e m p h a s i s e d and t h a t p r e f e r e n c e s f o r a s t i m u l u s may be a c q u i r e d by e x p o s u r e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f r e c o g n i t i o n . ( K u n s t - W i l s o n and Z a j o n c , 1980; M a t l i n , 1971; M o r e l a n d and
Z a j o n c , 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 9 ) .
b) A f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s a r e i n e s c a p a b l e
19
by t h e " c o n t e x t o f t h e s u r r o u n d " . T h i s v i e w i s n o t s h a r e d by e x i s t e n t i a l i s t p h i l o s o p h e r s ( e . g . S a t r e ) who a r g u e f o r a s u b s t a n t i a l v o l u n t a r y c o m p o n e n t t o e m o t i o n .
c ) A f f e c t i v e j u d g e m e n t s t e n d t o be i r r e v o c a b l e
A c c o r d i n g t o Z a j o n c t h e p e r s e v e r e n c e e x p e r i m e n t s ( R o s s , L e p p e r and H u b b a r d , 1 9 7 5 ) , t h e s t r o n g p r i v a c y e f f e c t s i n i m p r e s s i o n f o r m a t i o n and t h e f a c t t h a t a t t i t u d e s a r e v i r t u a l l y i m p e r v i o u s t o p e r s u a s i o n a l l a t t e s t t o t h e r o b u s t s t r e n g t h and pe r ma n e n c e o f a f f e c t .
F i n a l l y , he a r g u e d f o r a s e p a r a t i o n b e t we e n a f f e c t and c o g n i t i o n on a p s y c h o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l b a s i s . He s u g g e s t e d t h a t r e c e n t know
l e d g e i n n e u r o l o g y does n o t r e f u t e h i s p r o p o s a l s a b o u t t h e s e p a r a t e p r o c e s s i n g o f a f f e c t . R a t h e r , i t s u p p o r t s t h e n o t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t s y s t e m s by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t t h e o r g a n i s m i s e q u i p p e d w i t h a n e u r o l o g i c a l
a p p a r a t u s t o make and r e t a i n d i s t i n c t i o n s r a p i d l y " w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o w a i t f o r t h e s l o w f e e d b a c k f r o m t h e a u t o n o m i c s y s t e m " ( Z a j o n c , 19 81, p . 1
69)-Z a j o n c ' s c h a l l e n g e t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m v i e w t h a t a f f e c t i s p o s t - c o g n i t i v e was c r i t i c i s e d by L a z a r u s (1 9 8 2) who c a t e g o r i c a l l y a r g u e d t h a t t h o u g h t i s a n e c e s s a r y as w e l l as s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n o f e m o t i o n .
L a z a r u s based h i s p o s i t i o n on t h e c o n c e p t o f c o g n i t i v e a p p r a i s a l w h i c h he f e l t i s t h e c e n t r a l i d e a i n t h e o r i e s o f a d u l t e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e .
" C o g n i t i v e a p p r a i s a l means t h a t t h e way one i n t e r p r e t s o n e ' s p l i g h t a t any g i v e n moment i s c r u c i a l t o t h e e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e . " ( L a z a r u s , 1982,
20
L a z a r u s a r g u e d t h a t Z a j o n c ' s a p p r o a c h t o c o g n i t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a g r e a t d e a l o f c u r r e n t c o g n i t i v e p s y c h o l o g y . T h i s a p p r o a c h
l i k e n s t h e mi nd t o a c o m p u t e r and t h u s "human c o g n i t i o n , l i k e t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f a c o m p u t e r , p r o c e e d s by s e r i a l l y r e c e i v i n g , r e g i s t e r i n g , e n c o d i n g , s t o r i n g f o r t h e s h o r t - o r l o n g - r u n , and r e t r i e v i n g m e a n i n g l e s s l i s t s - a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o me a n i n g t h a t i s c a l l e d ' i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g 1"
( L a z a r u s , 1982, p . 1 0 2 0 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o L a z a r u s t h i s u n f o r t u n a t e o r i e n t a t i o n e x p l a i n s Z a j o n c ' s d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p t i n g t h a t e m o t i o n l i e s " a t t h e end o f a t o r t u o u s c o g n i t i v e c h a i n o f i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g " ( L a z a r u s ,
1 9 8 2 ) . L a z a r u s f e e l s we do n o t have t o w a i t f o r l e n g t h y p r o c e s s i n g t o r e v e a l t h e me a n i ng o f o u r e n v i r o n m e n t . R a t h e r , p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s such as b e l i e f s , e x p e c t a t i o n s and m o t i v e s o r c o m m i t m e n t s i n f l u e n c e a t t e n t i o n and a p p r a i s a l a t t h e o u t s e t o f a n y s i t u a t i o n . T h u s , p e r s o n a l me a n i n g and t h e f a c t o r s w h i c h shape t h i s s h o u l d be t h e f o c u s o f r e s e a r c h i n t o e m o t i o n a l / c o g n i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Z a j o n c ' s n a r r o w c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f c o g n i t i o n has a l s o been c r i t i c i s e d by O ' M a l l e y ( 1 9 8 1 ) who f e e l s t h a t h i s e n t i r e a r g u m e n t r e l i e s
t o o h e a v i l y on g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s dr a wn f r o m e x p o s u r e e x p e r i m e n t s . W h i l e a g r e e i n g w i t h Z a j o n c t h a t a f f e c t p l a y s a " m o r e i m p o r t a n t r o l e t h a n we a r e w i l l i n g t o a d m i t " O ' M a l l e y c o n c l u d e s t h a t i t i s an i m p l a u s i b l e p o s i t i o n t o c o n c e i v e o f a f f e c t as b e i n g p r e - c o g n i t i v e .
Rachman ( 1 9 8 1 ) i n a l a r g e l y p o s i t i v e r e v i e w o f Z a j o n c ' s p a p e r c o n c l u d e d t h a t " a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y a r e p r e - c o g n i t i v e , i n s t a n t aneou s and a u t o m a t i c and p r o b a b l y a r e p r o c e s s e d i n a s y s t e m t h a t i s a t
21
can o c c u r i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f and p r i o r t o c o g n i t i v e c h a n g e s s u g g e s t s an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r p e r s i s t e n t p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g .
Henc e, t h e i d e a t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s can f i n d " c o m f o r t i n f a m i l i a r i t y " may e x p l a i n w h a t seems t o some p e o p l e t h e i n e x p l i c a b l e d e s i r e t o c o n t i n u e t o p e r f o r m t h e same r e s p o n s e t o t h e same s t i m u l u s r e g a r d l e s s o f
t h e a w a r e n e s s o f c o n t i n u e d f i n a n c i a l l o s s . T h a t some p e o p l e may be more r e s i s t a n t t h a n o t h e r s t o n o r m a l h a b i t u a t i o n p r o c e s s e s o r more s u s c e p t i b l e t o p o s i t i v e a f f e c t c h a n g e r a i s e s i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h e a v y o r c o m p u l s i v e g a m b l i n g . In an e a r l i e r p a p e r , Rachman
( 1 9 7 9 ) s u g g e s t e d i n h i s a n a l y s i s o f e m o t i o n a l p r o c e s s i n g t h a t " t h e p r e s e n c e o f d i s t u r b e d mood, s p e c i f i c a l l y d e p r e s s i o n , may r e t a r d h a b i t u a t i o n p r o c e s s e s " . G i v e n t h e " i n t i m a t e b u t p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d " r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d e p r e s s i o n and o b s e s s i v e / c o m p u l s i v e b e h a v i o u r t h e p r o s p e c t o f e x p l a i n i n g p e r s i s t e n t g a m b l i n g , a t l e a s t i n p a r t , i n t e r m s o f d e p r e s s e d mood and h a b i t u a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i s an e x c i t i n g p o s s i b i l i t y . Rachman
s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n d e p r e s s i o n and o b s e s s i v e b e h a v i o u r i s a c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n o f how t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f mood f a c t o r s can i n t e r r u p t ( b l o c k o r p r e v e n t ) n o r m a l p r o c e s s i n g o f e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s .
Rachman ( 1 9 7 9 ) a l s o q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r p e o p l e a r e c a p a b l e o f p r o c e s s i n g e m o t i o n a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t e r i a l s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n r e l a t i o n t o g a m b l i n g t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h e t h e r t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f h i g h a r o u s a l d u r i n g g a m b l i n g i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e n o r ma l p r o c e s s i n g o f t h e e m o t i o n a l and c o g n i t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n s i s t e n t l y l o s i n g money. Can t h e g a m b l e r p r o c e s s t h e e m o t i o n a l i m p a c t o f l o s s a t t h e same t i m e as t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t he has o v e r s p e n t by $ x , has d e b t s a m o u n t i n g t o $y and t h e o b j e c t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y o f w i n n i n g i s z%. The a p p a r e n t i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f p e r s i s t e n c e a t g a m b l i n g when l o s i n g m i g h t be an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t
22
INDUCED MOOD AND ILLUSION OF CONTROL
The i m p a c t o f mood and mood c hange s on c o g n i t i o n s and v i c e v e r s a has r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g t o
l e a r n e d h e l p l e s s n e s s and d e p r e s s i o n . G i v e n t h e c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e o f p e r c e i v e d n o n - c o n t i n g e n c y t o l e a r n e d h e l p l e s s n e s s t h e o r y , t h e f i n d i n g t h a t d e p r e s s e d s u b j e c t s r e a d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s a c c u r a t e l y has a t t r a c t e d r e s e a r c h e x p l o r a t i o n .
G o l i n , T e r r e l l and J o h n s o n ( 1 9 7 7 ) s t u d i e d n o n d e p r e s s e d s t u d e n t s who showed an " i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l " i n an o b j e c t i v e c h a n c e t a s k i n w h i c h
e l e m e n t s t y p i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s k i l l w e r e i n t r o d u c e d . De p r es s ed s t u d e n t s d i d n o t succumb t o t h i s i l l u s i o n . T h i s was e x t e n d e d t o a s t u d y o f s e v e r e l y d e p r e s s e d i n - p a t i e n t s and t h e same phenomenon w e r e n o t e d w h e r e a s n o n d e p r e s s e d p s y c h i a t r i c i n - p a t i e n t s showed a r o b u s t i l l u s i o n o f
c o n t r o l ( G o l i n , T e r r e l l , W e i t z and D r o s t , 1 9 7 9 ) •
A t p r e s e n t t h e c a u s a l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n d e p r e s s i v e a f f e c t and a c c u r a c y i n j u d g i n g p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l i s n o t known.
In o t h e r w o r d s , does t h e s t a t e o f d e p r e s s i o n c a u s e a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n o r do p e o p l e who p e r c e i v e r e a l i s t i c c o n t i n g e n c i e s become more v u l n e r a b l e and d e p r e s s e d . A t h i r d p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n o t h e r
f a c t o r such as a t t r i b u t i o n a 1 s t y l e a f f e c t s t hem b o t h .
The s t u d y by A l l o y , Abr amson and V i s c u s i ( 1 9 8 1 ) a t t e m p t e d t o e x a m i n e t h i s c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . A l t h o u g h n o t l e a d i n g t o u n e q u i v o c a l c o n c l u s i o n s i t r a i s e s some i n t e r e s t i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s a p p l i c a b l e t o p e r s i s t e n t g a m b l i n g . A l l o y e t a l . ( 1 9 8 1 ) i n d u c e d d e p r e s s e d mood ( V e l t e n , 1968)
23
$5 n o n - c o n t i n g e n t l y .
A l l o y e t a l . h y p o t h e s i s e d t h a t i f c u r r e n t mood
s t a t e s i n f l u e n c e a c c u r a c y t h e n n a t u r a l l y d e p r e s s e d s t u d e n t s made
t e m p o r a r i l y e l a t e d s h o u l d e x h i b i t an i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l .
The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e mood i n d u c t i o n m a n i p u l a t i o n s
we r e s u c c e s s f u l in r e v e r s i n g d e p r e s s e d and n o n d e p r e s s e d s u b j e c t s ' t y p i c a l
j u d g e m e n t s o f c o n t r o l .
T h a t i s , d e p r e s s e d s u b j e c t s , made t e m p o r a r i l y
e l a t e d , showed i l l u s i o n s o f c o n t r o l n o r m a l l y o b s e r v e d in n a i v e n o n
d e p r e s s e d i n d i v i d u a l s ( A l l o y e t a l . , 1 9 7 9 ) .
They g r e a t l y o v e r e s t i m a t e d
t h e i r i mpa c t on g r e e n l i g h t o n s e t c ompa r e d t o d e p r e s s e d s u b j e c t s in t h e
e l a t i o n s i m u l a t i o n ,
n e u t r a l , and n o - i n d u c t i o n g r o u p s .
N o n d e p r e s s e d
s u b j e c t s made d e p r e s s e d j u d g e d t h e y had s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s c o n t r o l o v e r
g r e e n l i g h t o n s e t t h a n n o n d e p r e s s e d s u b j e c t s in s i m u l a t i o n , n e u t r a l and
n o - i n d u c t i o n c o n t r o l g r o u p s .
As A l l o y e t a l . p o i n t o u t h o we v e r , i t i s
s t i l l n o t known i n w h a t way a f f e c t i v e s t a t e s l i k e d e p r e s s i o n c a n i n f l u
e n c e c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s .
We do n o t know, f o r e x a m p l e , i f mood i n d u c t i o n
i n t h i s s t u d y i n f l u e n c e d j u d g e m e n t s by a l t e r i n g t h e r a t e o f b e h a v i o u r and
t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f t e s t i n g c o mpl e x h y p o t h e s e s o r w h e t h e r t h e s u b j e c t s '
s e l f p e r c e p t i o n was a l t e r e d .
In p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y
e x i s t s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n o f b o t h p r o c e s s e s .
F i r s t l y an e n h a n c e d mood
may r e s u l t in t h e p l a y e r s f e e l i n g mor e s k i l f u l o r l u c k y t h a n t h e y u s u a l l y
f e e l o r t h e y e s t i m a t e o t h e r s t o b e .
On t h e o t h e r hand t h e a u t h o r ha s
o b s e r v e d t h a t h i g h e r r a t e s o f a c t i v i t y ( f a s t e r p u l l i n g , p l a y i n g mor e
t h a n o ne ma c h i n e a t a t i m e and f r e q u e n t c h a n g e o f ma c h i n e s ) and a
g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y t o h a v e t h e o r i e s ( d i f f e r e n t h a n d l e p u l l i n g t e c h n i q u e s ,
c l u b p o s i t i o n i n g o f “ p a y i n g " m a c h i n e s , empt y s o u n d i n g m a c h i n e s , r i g g e d
2 k
What i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e f r o m t h e A l l o y e t a l . ( 1 9 7 9 ) s t u d y i s t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t a t e m p o r a r y mood s t a t e can i n d u c e an i l l u s i o n o f c o n t r o l w h i c h may be c o n t r a r y t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s no r ma l j u d g e m e n t s o f c o n t i n g e n c i e s . Thus a g a m b l e r c o m i n g t o t h e c l u b f e e l i n g d e p r e s s e d may, p r i o r t o t h e a r o u s i n g e x p e r i e n c e o f g a m b l i n g , have a p e r f e c t l y r e a l i s t i c i d e a o f h i s o r h e r c h a n c e s o f w i n n i n g ; more r e a l i s t i c , i n f a c t , t h a n t h e i r more j o v i a l c o m p a n i o n who may be f e e l i n g q u i t e u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y o p t i m i s t i c . Howev er t h e t e m p o r a r y mood e n h a n c e m e n t
e x p e r i e n c e d w h i l e p l a y i n g s h o u l d , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f i n d i n g s o f A l l o y e t a l . a l t e r t h e d e p r e s s e d p l a y e r ' s j u d g e m e n t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
THE PRESENT STUDY
A number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s can be made a b o u t p o k e r m a c h i n e p l a y i n g w h i c h s u g g e s t an e x p l a n a t o r y model o f p e r s i s t e n c e . Not o n l y i s i t a v e r y r e p e t i t i v e p a s t i m e b u t r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t i t i s a l s o a v e r y a r o u s i n g o n e . G i v e n t h i s a r o u s i n g b u t r e p e t i t i v e q u a l i t y one
w o u l d e x p e c t t h a t a f t e r i n i t i a l a r o u s a l t h e n o r ma l h a b i t u a t i o n p r o c e s s e s w o u l d r e s u l t i n l o w e r e d a r o u s a l and e v e n t u a l b o r ed o m. T h i s i s o b v i o u s l y so f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e b u t t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f h e a v y and p e r s i s t e n t g a m b l i n g s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s does n o t a l w a y s t a k e p l a c e . G i v e n
t h e o b j e c t i v e p r o b a b i l i t y o f l o s i n g i n t h e l o n g r un ( A . C . T . m a c h i n e s a r e l e g a l l y s e t t o pay b a c k t o t h e p l a y e r 8 7%) i t seems p l a u s i b l e t o s u g g e s t t h a t p e o p l e who c o n t i n u e t o p l a y and l o s e a r e :
-1) P e o p l e who h a v e a m i s t a k e n i d e a a t t h e o u t s e t t h a t t h e o d d s a r e i n t h e i r f a v o u r
o r
2) P e o p l e who “ e n j o y " o r h a v e a h i g h e r t o l e r a n c e o f b or edom ( Z a j o n c ' s i d e a o f t h e “ c o m f o r t o f f a m i l i a r
i t y " )
