Faulty femininity

Rochester Institute of Technology

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Theses

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2004

Faulty femininity

Kristin Gleason

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Recommended Citation

Faulty Femininity

By

Kristin Mary Gleason

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Fine Arts

Rochester Institute of Technology

Fall 2004

Approved by

Chair: Jeff Weiss Date

Associate Professor, School of Photographic Arts and Sciences

Patti Ambrogi Date

Associate Professor, School of Photographic Arts and Sciences

Jessica Lieberman

7 1

Date

Adjunct Professor, School of Photographic Arts and Sciences and

College of Liberal Arts

-Faulty Femininity

Master of FineArts JPHG

School of Photographic Arts and Sciences

I hereby grant the Rochester Institute of Technology and its agents the non-exclusive license to archive and make accessible my thesis in whole or in part in all forms of media perpetuity. I retain all other ownership rights to the copyright of the thesis. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis.

PrintReproduction Pennission Granted:

I, KristinMaryGleason, hereby grant permission to the Rochester Institute of

Technology to reproduce my print thesis in whole or in part. Any reproduction will not be for commercial use or profit.

(O/Iid!

i

TABLEOFCONTENTS

ArtistStatement 5

Part I

Introduction 6

The_WanderingWomb_TheoryandEndometriosis 10

Medicineand_Imaging 33

Partn

Faulty Femininity 40

Previous Work 45

Artistic Influences 48

PartHI

Historical Background 58

Bibliography 92

Artist Statement

"There hasbeensincetheearliest written_record,a_tendencyfor_[doctors]toexplain emotional and hysterical behaviorinwomen as relatedto thefemalereproductivetract"

-Ehrenreich,John,The Cultural Crisis ofModern Medicine.

"Theterm_hysterectomy[...]hasbeena part ofthe_medical

vocabulary forgenerations. Although theuterushas_nothingtodowith_hysteria,the term_hysterectomypersists. Itspersistenceissignificant because accuracyshoulddictatesubstitutionoftheworduterectomy."

-Taylor,E. Stuart,Essentials of Gynecology.

Modemmedicine persists withaVictorianperspectivetowardswomen'shealth and_especiallythefemalereproductive system. Although doctorsnolongertreat disordersoftheuterus with"blooding"_{byleeches, burning}theaffected skinor

starvation, treatments_todayare still_relativelycrude. Comparedtostate-of-the-arthealth programslikethehumangenome_project,theuseoffiberoptics andlaser_technologyin laparoscopic surgery,automatic multiphasichealthtesting,and otherless invasive

medical_{treatments,many}women'shealthcareprograms retaintheirarchaicdependence on_socially constructed viewsofthefeminine. While doctorscan performintricate endoscopic_surgeryon an unborn_fetus,themother'smedical problems_(especially, thoughnot_exclusively,asrelatedtoherreproductive_tract)are often solvedthroughthe complete removalofherreproductive_organs,a castrationthatwouldbe deemed barbaric if similarlyperformed ontheoppositesex. _{Certainlysomething isawry,}as moreand more women are _{calling for}a re-examination ofWesternmedicine,and arenewed concentration onthetreatmentofthewhole_patient,ratherthan thecollectionof symptoms.

Perhaps artcanhealwhere medicinehas failed. What isthe_{relationship between}

art,medicineandinformation dissemination? _My artisnot_{only therapeutic; it}also involvestheprocess of_healingandinvestigates my own methods of_copingand_restoring lifeto "normal."Allof_mypieces_displayanenduring,resistant,obsessivebehavior. _My

current workisautobiographicalincontent. Iexamine_mypersonalexperience witha disease calledendometriosis,whichI wasdiagnosedwithat agetwenty. Thesymptoms of_{endometriosis,(pain,}chronic_fatigue,irregular_bleedingand_{infertility),}occurbecause the_liningoftheuterus theendometrium grows outside ofthewomb. There are

manytreatmentsforendometriosis,including: hormonetherapy, laparoscopicsurgery, hysterectomy, dietaryand otherholisticapproaches,butnodefinitivecure.

Forseveralyears nowI havegrappled withthemesof wound_healing,women's

medicalissuesandthemasqueradewomen oftenperformtocope withtheirmedical and

personalhistories. Inrecent_work,I addressed_{decoration, disguise,touch,}skin and

identitythroughtheuse ofallegory,metaphorandhumor. Iused surrogates of_food,fruit andflowersasmetaphorsforthebody,andre-dressedthemin featherstoexposethe

futilityof_livingthroughamask. I continuetoexplorethemasquerade_{investigating} my experience with_{healingby leaving} themetaphorsbehindand_turninginsteadto_myown

bodyandprojecting,quite_literally,myselfintothework.

"The besttime to teachpeople.abouttheirhealth maynotbewhen_theyare mostsick,though sometimesthis_{may be}the_onlycourse... if only doctorsand patients could communicatebetter...

"

-Roberts,Helen,The Patient Patients: WomenandtheirDoctors.

-5-PartI:Introduction

I onceimagineda_scanningmachinethatcould screenfor diseases. Similartoan

airport_securitygate,the _scanningmachinewouldlook insideeach_passingperson and

generate a sheet_diagnosingthespecific ailments ofthatperson andrecommendtreatment

options. _Myscanningmachine would_demystifymedicine_bymakingthedeepestofour

troubles_visible,and_therefore,fixable. Itwouldalso eliminatetheneedformost

doctors'

visits,bloodtestsandprocedures,andrevolutionizepreventative medicine. I believe

sucha_scanningmachinewill existinthenot-too-distant_future,asadvancesinmedicine

such asthehumangenomeprojectandautomatic multiphasichealth_testingare_already

shining lightonthedarkand unknownareas ofthehuman body. Asanartist,Ioften

consider_{my frustrations}about_{medicine,especially}thatit doesnotknowwhattodowith

me. _My troublesare notalways_{visible, easilydiagnosed,} ortreatable. Witha_scanning

machine,I imaginedthat_{my frustrations}withmodernmedicine would_disappear,

replaced_bya confidencein_definite,visibleknowledge.

Medicine has a_longand complexhistory. Likethe_livingorganismsit treated,

medicine grew overtime,sometimeswithseverebacklashestoantiquated methodologies

andtechniques. Nowherewerethe theoriesofmedicine more_{socially dictated}thanin

the topicof women'shealth,asubjectthathasprovided ampleinspirationfor my own

artwork. Thetopicofreproduction,it'sprocesshiddenwithinthewoman'sbody,

fascinatedmedicaldoctors and_scientists,and"itwas anaccepted notioninmedical

literaturefromtheancientGreeksuntilthelateeighteenth_century thatmaleandfemale

theirsareinsidethe_body,notoutof

it."1

Since_they couldnot visualizethe inner female

genitalia- dueto

an ancienttabooon_surgeryand_autopsy- doctorsbelievedthe_uterus

wastheshapeofaninvertedpenis,while"anatomistsbelievedthatthegenerativeorgans

offetusesofbothsexeswerethesame,butthatthe natural coldnessofthefemale

hinderedtheirorgansfrom_beingthrustforwardas_theywereinthe_male,who was

naturally

warm."2

Medievalanatomists perpetuatedthenotion_{bypostulating}that theact

of coitusinvolved a"lockandkey"_anatomy,anevolutionof abiological _theory

suggestingthatfemales "avoid_havingtheireggsfertilized_bymalesof otherspecies_by

evolvingacomplicated genitaliathatpermitsinsemination_onlybythe_{corresponding}

genitalia ofmales oftheirown species. Themalehasthe_keytofitthefemale's lock."3

Fromthesecond_{century AD}to 1800,menstruation- _apositiveact- _{provided a}

shedding,_{health-maintaining}renewalofthe_bodyand spirit. Menperformedparallel

deedstorenewtheirbody. The 1800's broughtviewsthatwomenand men were

fundamentallydifferent. As no maleequivalentexistedfortheprocessof_{menstruation,}

itwas seen as pathological. "Functionsthatforthefirsttimewere seen as_uniquely

female,without analoguein

males"4

were negative andtaboo. In_fact,theorigin ofthe

wordtaboocomesfromaPolynesianwordfor

menstruation.5

Thepain andemotional

1

Martin,Emily. The Woman intheBody:_{A Cultural Analysis ofReproduction. Boston:} BeaconPress, 1992.

2

Dixon,Laurinda S. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllness in Pre-Enlightenment Art andMedicine. Ithica: Cornell _UniversityPress, 1995.

3

Gilman, Sander L. DiseaseandReproduction: Images ofIllness from Madness to

AIDS. Ithica: Cornell_UniversityPress, 1988

4

Martin,Emily. The Woman intheBody:_{A Cultural Analysis ofReproduction. Boston:} Beacon_Press, 1992.

5

Dally,Ann. WomenundertheKnife:A_{HistoryofSurgery. New York: Routledge,} 1991.

-7-distress often_accompanying menstruation constitutedthenegativeimpactof

menstruationonthe_body,and"bloodwas _onlytheoutward expressionand

result"6

ofit.

Contemporarymedicaltextsreflect such an_attitude, as_theydescribe

menstruationinnegative_terms,wherethecells_die,degenerateand_{decline,causing}the

sheddingofthe_liningoftheuterus andtheprocess of menstruation. Menstruationis a

wastefulprocess. Yettheproductionofthemale zygoteis defined inpositiveterms that

stressthesheermagnitudeofsperm_production,eventhoughmostwill_die,as _onlyonein

onehundred billionspermwillfertilizean egg. In her_book,The Woman intheBody: A

Cultural Analysis ofReproduction,Emily Martinadmits thatperhapsmenstruation can

best be described inmorenegativeterms. Shearguesthatifthisisthe case,similar

processes should receiveparalleltreatments. For_example, the_liningofthestomachmust

periodicallyregenerate anddisposeof old cellsdueto thehighconcentrationof acidsin

thestomachthataiddigestion. _However,thesame medical textsdescribesucha

shedding inpositivetermsof renewal and regeneration. _Whyis therean unequal

treatmentof scientificdescriptionsofthe reproductive systems offemalesand_males,and

whatdoesthat_sayabout our society? Iaminterested_{in exploring}these_{discrepancies,}

theirdevelopmentinthe_historyofwomen's medicine andtheirimplications for

contemporary health. Myartworkattemptsto_bringissues likethis tolightandexplore

theramifications ofunequaltreatment

If,forinstance, awoman choosestobe_infertile, ifshepracticesbirthcontroland

doesnot wishtobecomepregnant,isn'tmenstruationthedesiredresult?

6

Dixon,Laurinda S. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllness inPre-EnlightenmentArt

IntheVictorian_era,powerful taboosexisted around menstruation. Menstruation

was pathological

-a vilesignof women's evilness. Menstruation wasnot connectedto

ovulation until 1831. Priorto _1831,menstruation wasthoughttobecontrolled_bythe

cycles ofthemoon. _{Interestingly,}theoriginofthewordlunaticcomesfromthe

"scientific"

beliefthatthemooncouldcause_{insanity,especially in}

women.7

Inthe 19th

century,Dr. Joseph Meigscomparedhumanmenstruationtomonkeysanddeducedthat

sincemonkeys_rarelymenstruateinnature,human female physiology isunnatural. He

perpetuatedthebeliefthatwomen shouldnot_{delaypregnancy,}andthatitwouldbe

dangerousto theirhealthto_staychaste.

Whyisabiologicalprocessperceived asunnatural,negativeandtaboo? Partof

theproblemlieswiththefactthatallopathic_{(traditional,Western)}medicine- developed

as a male enterprise

-focusingon_{conqueringdisease,production,} and cures. Whenthe

femaleprocessesareviewedintermsof_production,"menstruationmust_{necessarily be}

viewedasafailure."8 Feminists arguethata changeinmedical perspective willallow

menstruationtobeviewed more positively. Insteadof_focusingonproduction, the

female_bodyshouldbeseenas _{fascinatingly}flexible: it "undergoes dramaticadjustments

to pregnancy,ovulation and cessation ofovulation,creatingtheperfect exemplarfora

new modal concept the_flexiblyadjusting, constantlychanging

body."9

7

Dixon,Laurinda S. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllnessin Pre-Enlightenment Artand

Medicine. Ithica: Cornell _UniversityPress, 1995.

8

Martin,Emily. The Woman intheBody:_{A Cultural Analysis ofReproduction.} Boston: BeaconPress, 1992.

9

Martin,Emily. The Woman inthe_{Body: A Cultural Analysis ofReproduction. Boston:}

I am_particularlyinterestedinone _{theoryregarding}thefemalereproductive

system. _{The wandering}womb_theory,popularfromancienttimes through theVictorian

era,postulatedthat thewomb wasfreetowander withina woman's_bodywithouther

knowledge orcontrol. Like aseparate and uncontrollable _animal,itroamed_freely,and

wasthecauseofmost women's medical problems. _If,for_instance, a womanhada

headache,herwombhadwanderedinto herskullandtheaddedpressureonher brain

causedtheheadachepain. _{Surprisingly,}althoughthe_theoryhas sincebeen_debunked,it

continuestoexert controloverthemedical_community and remnants ofthe_theory

continueto_{haunt contemporary}medicalpractice. Womenwereboth definedand

controlled_bytheirreproductive_organs,andtheuterus wasaprimitive,uncontrollable

animal. The_womb, whenleftonitsown wouldwanderthebody,exertingpressure on

other organs and_causing suchvariedsymptoms as _{stomachaches,indigestion, backaches,}

etc.

The Ebers Papyrus (1550BC

-Egyptian)wasthefirsttodescribethe_wandering

womb_theory,and suggestedaformof_aromatherapyas a cure. Foulsmells atthenose

(burnt_hair,extinguishedcandles, burntwool, skin,ragsand squashedbed_bugs)would

drivethewombbacktothenetherregions. Anothertreatment_{included applying}leeches

to thecervixfor_blooding(atreatment thatwas_extremelypopularinthe _1830's),despite

thefactthat_{theyoccasionally} got

"lost"

intheuterus_{(a very}painful side effect).

Leecheswereusedin manyother specialtiesofmedicine,and were appliedtomen and

women,although similar accountsof_{placing leeches}onmalegenitaliadonot exist.

sympathy(exists)betweenthesexualorgans."10

Causticchemicals,likesilver nitrate and

potassium,appliedto thecervix would_stopthe_{wanderingwomb,} aswouldthe

traditional"cure" of sex and pregnancy. Whenthefemalewombwassatiated and

otherwise occupiedit didnot wanderthebody. Physicians inthe17th_centuryoften

scolded parentsfor_delayingthemarriage oftheir_daughters,"who likecats anddogs

mustbeprovidedforinseason, toprevent_manydiseases."11 Inadditionto_marrying

young,"upper-class women werefurtheradvisedtomaintainaconstantstateof

pregnancysothat thewomb wouldbeoccupied at alltimeswithits biological

function,"12

andthereforewouldnotwanderthebody. It is inthebestinterestofthemale

thathisfemale_partners)produce_offspringas often as_{possible, increasing}hisgenes'

recurrenceinthepopulation's genepool. _{The wandering}womb_theorywasused as a

method of social control. _Bycitingmedicine's scientific"proofthatwomen were

healthiestwhile_pregnant,maledoctorsencouragedabeliefthat_{ultimately benefited}male

societymorethanitwomenitwasimposedupon. Pre-modernmedicine'slackof

understandingofantiseptic proceduresand usedofarchaic_birthingtechnologiesmade

childbirth ahazardousandoftenfatalcondition. Fromamodernstandpoint,itseems

obviousthat theprocess of childbirthwasmost_definitelymorehazardousthan_remaining

chaste,so scienceandmedicineinventeda_convincingreasonfortheperils of_chastity

-the_wanderingwomb syndrome.

10

Ehrenreich,Barbaraand_English,Deirdre. Complaints andDisorders: The Sexual Politics ofSickness, 1978.

11

Dixon,LaurindaS. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllnessinPre-Enlightenment Art

andMedicine. Ithica: Cornell UniversityPress, 1995.

12

Dixon,LaurindaS. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllnessinPre-EnlightenmentArt

andMedicine. Ithica: Cornell_UniversityPress, 1995.

Loveinmarriage was not_{necessary in Victorian}andpre-_Victorian

societies,but

itwas essentialthatwomen_{married,both fortheirhealthandthestatus quo. Inaddition}

to theunsatiated_womb,lackoflovecould alsobeseenas a causeforthe_wandering

womb orfurorMerinos. Thesubject ofawoman's sick-roomwas popularin

Pre-Enlightenmentart. With_{doctors examining}urine_{sample, taking}herpulse and

bloodletting,"theconspicuouserotic referencesinpaintings offemalesickrooms

reinforcetheancientlinkbetween sex.andillness in

women."13

Eroticsymbolism,

gestures, theappearance of_{cupid, the}subject'spronepostureall referenced_sex,and as

thesubject ofthepaintings were"sickwomen,"

sicknessinwomen and sexbecame

visually_inextricablylinked.

Extremecasesofthe_wanderingwomb warranted_hysterectomyorclitorectomy,

even attimeswhen gynecological _surgerywas_riskyanddangerous.

"Late 19*

centurymedicaltreatmentofwomenmade _{very little}sense as

medicine, but itwas_undoubtedlyeffectiveat_keepingcertainwomenintheir

place."14

The wanderingwomb_theoryhas ramifications_today, aswomen are oftentold

thathysterectomiesarethe_onlysolutionto theirhealthcareproblems. In _1994,556,000

Americanwomenhad_{hysterectomies, giving}theUnited Statesthehighestrate inthe

industrializedworld. OnethirdofAmericanwomen willhavea_{hysterectomy by} age

sixty. Studies haveshownthatanywherefrom 10- 90%

ofthehysterectomieswere

unnecessary. _Contrary topopular_{belief,only 8}- 12%

ofhysterectomiesperformed

treatedcancer. _Whyallthe_unnecessarysurgeries? Infact, "overthelast_thirtyyears,

13

Dixon,LaurindaS. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllnessinPre-EnlightenmentArt

andMedicine. Ithica: Cornell_{UniversityPress,} 1995. 14

hysterectomyhascometoberegarded_bymany gynecologists as a simple solutionfor

everything frombackachestocontraception,"15

aholdoverfromancient solutionsto the

wanderingwomb. I amfrustrated_bytheprescription ofsuch a radicaltreatment,

especiallywhen other non-invasive orlesstraumaticoptions exist Forexample,in my

thesiswork,thevideo, CutLines,shows purple surgical markersdraw dashed linesacross

anabdomen until_theyare_{unreadable,referencing Western}medicine's emphasison

repeated surgicaltreatments. _Also,like Victorian _doctors,althoughthe_wanderingwomb

syndromehas _disappeared,current physiciansare stillinclinedtoblametheuterusfor

unrelated problems.

Historically, gynecologicalsurgeries were_onlyperformedin diresituations.

Withoutanesthetic or antiseptic_procedures,surgical patients oftendiedfromshock or

infection. Itwas not until the 19th_century thatgynecological _surgery gainedafoothold in

the_{rapidly expanding}medical profession. In 1809,Dr.Ephriam McDowellpavedthe

way forhysterectomyand_oophorectomy (removalofthe_ovaries) whenhe successfully

removedatwenty-twopound ovarian cystfromawoman_{previously diagnosed}as

pregnant When Dr. James Marion Sims began experimentingwithfistulas inthe 1850's,

gynecological_surgery cameinto itsown. Inthe 1870's_{"gynecologists,following}

Meig's-style logic [Dr. CharlesMeigs],begantopracticethesurgical treatmentofthe

psychologicaldisordersof women [.. .] Theycitedwomenas a majorsourceofsociety's

ills_[...] Womenwere still_beingcastrated(ovariesremoved)forpsychologicaldisorders

aslateas

1946."16

Today,"there is increased_questioningof gynecological processes and

ofthemotivesofsomegynecologists. _Gynecologyhasbecomepart ofthedispute

15

Driefus,Claudia. _SeizingourBodies. New York: VintageBooks, 1978. 16

Driefus, Claudia. _SeizingourBodies. New York: VintageBooks, 1978.

betweenwomen andthemedical profession. _Many womenhave becomesuspicious,

some after unfortunate personalexperiences."17

Debunkingthe_theoryofthe_wanderingwombhappened graduallyover_time,as

such a_{deeplyingrained,}

socially dictated disease didnotdisappearovernight _Working

independentlyinthelate 16th

century,JohannWeyerandEdward Jordenrevisedthe

medical opinionof_women, andalthough_theystillagreedwiththe_wanderingwomb,

theyclaimeditwasduetoorganic/natural causes. Jorden believed inuterine causes of

hysteria,but forthefirst_time,linked hysteriato thebrain. In hisopinion, theuterus gave

off"noxiousvaporsthataffectthebrain."18 Herecommended curesthatdealtwiththe

mindas_{well,including lessening}theemotional stressthepatient experienced. Thomas

Willis_(1621-1675)didautopsiesofwomen whohad Juror_uterinus,andfoundthat the

uterushadnot moved. Hefoundthat"thewombis of so smallbulk invirgins and

widows,and so _strictlytied_{byneighboring}partsroundabout thatitcan not ofitself be

movedor ascendfrom its

place."19

Becausehisworkattemptedto shatter a_tightlyheld

medical_paradigm,itwas not_immediatelyaccepted.

"Foucault hasshownthat theinstitutionof pathological _anatomyentailed a shift

in focus fromsymptomstoorgans,sitesand causes. Withtheriseof_physiology

laterinthe _[19th]century, thebodywas reconfigured as a_system,a networkof functions_takingplace across organs and

sites."20

17

Dally,Ann. WomenundertheKnife:A_{Historyof Surgery. New York: Routledge,} 1991.

18

Dixon,Laurinda S. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllnessinPre-Enlightenment Art

andMedicine. Ithica: CornellUniversityPress, 1995. 19

Dixon,Laurinda S. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllnessinPre-Enlightenment Art

andMedicine. Ithica: CornellUniversityPress, 1995 20

Cartwright,Lisa._Screening theBody:_TracingMedicine's VisualCulture.

The wanderingwomb_theoryhasnot_totallydisappearedfrommedical

vocabulary. Withnew_{surgical, autopsy,} and_{imagingtechnologies, it becameincreasing}

clearto the20th _centurymedical_communitythat theuterus could not_physicallymove

aboutwithin a woman'sbody. New emphasis on organand cell_theory alsobackedthe

debunking. Butoldideas die_hard,and medicine came_upwith a new diseaseonwhichto

blamewomen's physicalinferiority. It'scalledEndometriosis.

Endometriosis,which affects_ninetymillionwomenworldwide, occurs whenthe

liningof awoman's uterus(the_endometrium) grows outside ofthewomb. Endometrial

cells escapethewombandwanderaroundthe_{body, attaching}tovariousorgans. Science

hasadvancedfarenoughtorealizethatorganscannotmove,butcells still roam around.

Theendometrial cells create_cysts,benigntumorsand scartissueon_{the ovaries,}fallopian

tubes,small_{bowel,rectum,}or_cervix,andhaveevenbeenfoundonthelungs,heartand

brain. Likethenormalcellsinthe endometrium, thesecells respondtoestrogeninthe

body,andshedeach_{month,causing internal bleeding. Thebleeding}has been knownto

cause_pain, chronic_fatigue, vomiting,fever,tenderness, andinfertility. Thescartissuein

earlystages appearsclear,white,yellow, blueor_red,butin latestages ofthedisease

turnsblackas excessbloodaccumulates.

There area_varietyoftheoriesonthecause of endometriosis. Someresearchers

arguethatretrogrademenstruation(menstrual fluid moving up intothereproductive

organsinsteadofoutofthe_body)causesendometriosis. Otherresearchers arguea

hereditary/genetic approach,asendometriosistends toruninfamilies. Somescientists

believeendometriosisis acongenital condition presentat_birth,thatsome endometrial

cellsnevermadeittotheuterus whilethefetusdeveloped, andthereforeremaindormant

until puberty. Studies havealso_{linked dioxin(a pesticide)}and otherenvironmental

toxins toendometriosis. Some scientists_trytolinkmentaldisorders (like bipolar

affective)toendometriosis and chronic pelvic_{pain,continuing} thefalseassumptionthat

women's physicalillnessesoftenhavepsychological roots.

Endometriosis, althoughbelievedtohaveexistedsincethe_beginningofmankind,

was_{first described in}medicalliteraturein 1826. Itwasnamed_by Dr. JohnSampson in

1925. _{Relativelyfew scholarly} studieshave been done since,as endometriosis

-althoughitaffects_manypeople- is

notfatal. Iam_{personally interested in}endometriosis

andits linkstothe_wanderingwomb asIwasdiagnosedwiththediseaseat agetwenty.

Contemporarydiagnosisof endometriosisisnotaccomplishedthroughroutine

testsor procedures. _Currently,the_{only way} to_definitivelydiagnosea womanwith

endometriosisistoviewherreproductiveorgansthroughlaparoscopicsurgery. Two

smallincisionsare madeinthe_abdomen, andthesurgeon usesalaparoscope (often

outfitted with alaserforremoval of_lesions)and alightsourcetofindtheendometrial

tissue. Once_identified,itcanberemoved withthelaser. _{Unfortunately,}"studiesshow

that theaveragewomen withendometriosisgoes toaboutfive doctors beforeadiagnosis

ismade,because many othermedical_conditions,such asirritable bowel_syndrome,

mimic

endometriosis."21

Addition-ally,"women's pain,particularly inthearea oftheir

reproductiveorgans, tends tobeattributedtofantasy,signs of a neurotic_personalityor

justthemelancholicfateof_beinga

woman,"22

anotherholdoverfromold stereotypes

aboutfemalepatients.

21

Northrup,Christiane,M.D. Women'sBodies, Women's Wisdom. NewYork: Banrum Books, 1991.

22

Unfortunately, a cureforendometriosishasnot yetbeen found. Treatments

temporarilyease_symptoms,butlesionsoften growbackassoon as_therapy stops.

Traditional Westernmedicine recommends_{hormone therapy,}laparoscopicsurgery,

dietaryapproaches,_pregnancy and_{hysterectomy. Alternativetherapy,}suchas

acupuncture,herbalremedies,total_bodymassage, vitamins_(especiallyBand

magnesium),chiropractictreatments and_{visualization/meditation,}have alsorelievedthe

painforsome women.

Hormone_therapy attemptstoridthe_body ofendometrialgrowths_bychangingthe

balanceofhormoneswithinthebody. Hormone_therapyincludes: birthcontrolpills,

progestin,danocrine,and GnRHagonists(gonadotropin_{releasing hormones).} GnRH

agonists

-LupronandSynarel

-cause_temporarymenopause. _Bysuspendingthe

productionofestrogen,scientistsbelievethat the_bodywillbreak downtheendometrial

growths. _Although,itseems effective_treatment, thepain oftenreoccursafter_stopping

the_hormones, and side effectslike hot flashesand_{osteoporosis,}makethe treatment

undesirablefor_manywomen.

Laserlaparoscopy,another_commonlyrecommended_treatment,becamepopular

in gynecology inthe 1980's. A surgeonuses alaparoscopeto search,mostly inthe

abdominal cavity,fortheendometrial growths. When_theyare_found,thesurgeon uses

thelasertoexcisethem. _Laparoscopyisperformedas _daysurgery,with_{significantly}less

recoverytimethan traditionalsurgeries. The laparoscopic surgery is onlytemporary,

however, as growths_mayreturn,soit isoften combined with ahormone_therapy

treatmentto_delaythereturnoflesions. Hysterectomy,aradical_{treatment, is} often

performedonwomenwhodonotdesire children orarebeyond_childbearingyears.

Apatientwhohasindicated desire for_bearingchildrenisoftenencouraged_by her

doctortobecomepregnant as a curefor_{endometriosis,}atreatmentoptionI challengein

my thesis work, specifically, the_BodyStampsseries.As endometriosis_gradually

replacedthe_wanderingwombinmodern_medicine,this"cure" persisted,and_many

contemporarywomen with endometriosis are encouragedtoconceive. _Pregnancy

temporarily suspendsthegrowth of endometrial _{lesions,but like surgery}orhormone

therapy,theycontinuetogrow afterthe"treatment." _{The pregnancy}cure_simplymakesa

woman with endometriosisintoamotherwithendometriosis.

'The_fertility approachtoendo oftenintroducesa catch-22:_{pregnancy is}

recommendedasacurefor_endo,butendothataffects_fertilitymakes_pregnancy impossible."23

LikethedoctorsoftheVictorian _era,some_present-dayphysicians recommend

pregnancy as a curefor many feminine disorders. One bookclaimedthatdoctors havean

attitude_that, "ifgirls wouldlearntofollow natureandhavechildrenearly,neither

endometriosis nor_{resultinginfertility}would

exist"24

Thus,adiscussionon endometriosis mustincludecoverage ofinfertility.

Endometriosisisthe_leadingcauseof_infertilityinwomen,howeverallinfertilewomen

donothaveendo,nordoallwomen _{suffering from}endobecome infertile. _Infertility

discussionsoftenfocus onthewoman's _bodyastheproblematicone. _Overlookingthe

factthatamale must also participateintheactofconception,_"infertility [andevenbirth

defects] are so oftenblamedonflaws inthewoman's

body."25

Evensolutionsfor

23

Shohat,Ella. Laser for Ladies: Endo discourseandInscription ofScience, 1992.

24

Shohat,Ella. Laser for Ladies: Endo discourseandInscription ofScience, 1992.

25

infertility,"for many feminists... reiterateafamiliardoctor-patientnarrative: _developing

reproductivetechnologies_simplyre-legitimate circumstancesinwhich _mostlymale

doctorsare,once_again,given power over women's reproductivebodies."26 Itis no

wonderthat_infertility stillbares_manyoftheoldstereotypesthata woman who shirksher

reproductive_{responsibility}paysfor itwith poorhealth.

Oftenmedicine celebratesthe_manytechnological advances andlookspastthe

factthatacurehasnotbeen found. As_{NancyPeterson,}directoroftheEndo Treatment

program_explains,"ifamanhadadisease thatcausedhimtobeunabletofathera_child,

tohaveunbearable pain_during sex,which wastreated_{by feminizing}hormonesand

surgery, endo wouldbe declaredanational_{emergency in}this

country."27

Manymyths surroundthe_{contemporary discourse}onendometriosis. The primary

myth,whichleadstoadangerous_assumption,is thatmenstrualpainis primarilya

psychological symptom. When doctors do nottakemenstrualpain_seriously asan

indicationof aphysical_disorder, endometriosis gets misdiagnosed as_anxiety,

hypochondria, etc. Doctorsexplainthat"themaincharacteristics(of_endo)involve_being

mesomorphicbutunderweight, havingan above-averageintelligence,ahigherthan

normal_anxietylevel,egocentrism anda needfor

perfection."28

Byascribing mostiy

mental characteristicstoa physicaldisease, doctorsreinforcedtheassumptionthat

endometriosisis thephysical manifestation of a mental cause.

Asecond myth surrounds endometriosis, thatit isa"careerwoman'sdisease," a

myth whose roots canbetracedtotheVictorian fearofwomenintheworkplace andthe

26

Wall,Angela. Mothers, Monsters, and_FamilyValues:AssistedReproductionandthe

AgingNatural Body. 2000.

27

Shohat,Ella. LaserforLadies: Endo discourseandInscription of_Science, 1992

28

ShohatElla. Laser for Ladies: Endo discourseandInscription of_Science, 1992.

subsequentmedicaltheoriesthateducated women would endangertheirreproductive

capabilities_byworkingoutsidethehome. Womenwhoforgotheirreproductive

capabilitiesare seenas _havingagreaterriskfor_developingendometriosis. Thisbelief

has simply ascribednew"science"toan age-old assumptionabout women. In Victorian

andpre-_{Victorian times,the}

chaste woman was atriskforuterinedisorders becausethe

wombwanders unchecked aroundthe_bodywhenit isnot satisfied with sexorpregnancy.

The endodiscourse indicatesthat_pregnancy suspendsgrowth oflesions (dueto

hormonesthatprevent_{menstruation,}andtherefore the _spreadingofthelesions).

Therefore, themoretimewomen spendpregnantthelessproblematictheirendometriosis

willbe. Notmuchhaschanged sincetheVictorian era,when"theconcept ofthe

dangerouslyfickleuterus,which couldbetamed _{onlybyappeasing its}appetites,reflected

thecommonbeliefthatwomen were predisposedtocongenitalweaknessandill health

fromthemomentof

birth."29

"Womenwhodelayed childbearingwerefelttobeat greatestrisk forendo. Inthe

recent_past,manywomen with endo weretold thatifthey'dstayedhome andhad

babies,theywouldbeok. Thisisa controversial assertationbesidesan offensive

one,since some recent studies showthat thereisnodifference intheincidenceof

endoinwomen whohave beenpregnant, andthose whohave

not"3

The increase inthenumberofcareer womendiagnosedwithendo seemstostemfromthe

factthat_theyhaveaccesstobetter healthcare, are moreinsistentat_gettingadefinitive

diagnosis,and seek care orhavepreventativecare soonerthannon-careerwomen. "The

mythsthatimpede boththediagnosisandtreatmentofendo..

.,andlabelandblamethe

victim as an_upwardly striving, white, educated,ego-centricwomanin her latetwenties,

29

Dixon,LaurindaS. Perilous Chastity: WomenandIllness inPre-EnlightenmentArt

andMedicine. Ithica: CornellUniversity Press, 1995. 30

whohaspostponed_{pregnancy for her}

career,"

are anachronisticviews, reminiscent ofthe

Victorianmedicalarguments about women_remaininginthe home. _{By labeling}

endometriosisas acareer woman's_disease,medicineonceagainasserts a patriarchal

viewonthequestion ofwomen and outside-the-homework. Itconcludes thatwomen

whoforgotheirreproductiveduties canbe blamed fortheillness thatresults.

"Endometriosisis deemedGod'srevengeontheunnatural conduct of

preternaturallyambitious professionalwomen."31

Thethirdmyth, thatonlywhite womenhaveendometriosis,is also_culturally and

medicallycreated. _Typically,blackwomenwithendo symptomshave been diagnosed

withPID (pelvic_{inflammatorydisease)}

-a_sexuallytransmitteddisease

-while white

women withthesame symptomshaveendo. Researchers havetakenpainstoprovethat

endometriosishasraciallimits. _However, "recentstudies showthatendometriosisisan

equal_opportunitydisease,_striking womenofall _{socioeconomic,}racial and age

groups."32

Non-whitewomen oftenhave low quality healthcare,and no _{opportunity for}

laparoscopic_{surgery, theonly definitivediagnosing}tool.

Thefinalmyth,isthatyoungwomen are notaffected_{byendometriosis,}even

thoughstudieshaveshownthat_"sixtypercentofwomen with endoexperiencedtheirfirst

symptomsbeforeage

twenty-five."33

Youngwomen often sufferin_{silence,thinking}

then-painisanormal, natural partofmenstruation. As_theymature,women realizethattheir

painisunacceptable,and seektreatment.

31

Shohat,Ella. Laserfor Ladies: Endo discourseandInscription of_Science, 1992. 32

Shohat,Ella. Laser for Ladies: Endo discourseandInscription of_Science, 1992. 33

Our_{Bodies, Ourselves,}fortheNew Century. New York:_Touchstone, 1998.

"Preciselybecauseofitsgendered character and public_{invisibility,}endo

illuminatestheco-existence of an up-to-date endoscopic panopticon(laparoscopy,

laser_laparoscopy,and video_laparoscopy)withanold myopicdiscourse

concerning

femaleness."34

Nevertheless,endometriosisseemstobeontherise. New_technologylike

laparoscopymakesiteasier andless invasiveto_diagnose,andmore women are_seeking

therapy,as_theyrealizethatchronic painisnevernatural.anddoesnothavetobe

suffered. Aspublicdiscourseon endometriosisincreasesand womenbecomeaware of

its existence,more womenhavesoughttreatmentfortheirpain. Organizationsof women

with endometriosis- like

theEndometriosis Association

-striveforsocialawareness,

andworkto eliminate endo's public_{invisibility,}while_artists,likemyself create work

witha social agenda. _Myworkattemptstospreadtheword abouttheexistenceof

endometriosis, thedangersof_relyingon_sociallyconstructed viewsofthe_feminine,and

theinaccuraciesofcurrent medicaltreatmentsoffemalereproductivedisorders. As

David Wojnarowiczexplained,activist artcan: "breakthesilence about needsor

experiences andbreakthechainsofthe codeofsilence. _Describingthe once unspeakable

can maketheinvisible familiar ifrepeated often enoughin loudand cleartonesand

pictures."35

Thisisone ofthepurposesof_my art. _{By speaking}out aboutendometriosis,

I hopetoencouragearenewedinterestinresearch anddevelopmentof a curefor

endometriosis.

"Historiansrecognizethatmedicinehas beeneffectivethroughout_historyin

shapingthechoices opentowomen. Men havecreatedimages ofwomenas

reflectionsofmaleinterests, anxieties andlongings. Theyhaveinvokedscience

ingeneralandmedicineinparticularto_justifythemandates of sex andclass

imposedonwomenbyapowerfulsocial

order."

34

Shohat,Ella. Laser for Ladies: Endo discourseandInscription ofScience, 1992. 35

Another factorthatinfluencedthedevelopmentofwomen'smedicineisthe

relationship betweenthedoctorand patient. The doctor-patientpower_{relationship is}a

particularlytellingone. Victorian andpre-Victorian medicine_emphaticallyrestrictedthe

entranceof women studentsinto itsranks. Asaresult women were_graduallypushedout

ofthefieldof medicineasitorganized andprofessionalizedintoawhite-maledominated

occupation. Women_increasinglyfilledtherolesaspatient,and_rarely sat on"theother

sideofthe table". _{The balance has been slowly shifting}recently,as more womenbreak

intothe_field,but it isstill muchmore_likelythata maledoctorwillexamine afemale

patient Thereverseisarare occurrence. Apowerful_relationshipexistsbetween doctor

and patient Whathappenswhentherolesare_{traditionally}defined? Isitpossibleto

exposethepatriarchalnatureofthe_{doctor-patient relationshipbyactingsimultaneously}

asdoctorand patient? These areissues IexploreasIperform pieceslike_EggToss, Cut

LinesandPill Swallow.

Unfortunately,thedoctor holdsmostofthepowerin shapingthedoctor-patient

relationship. Withoutathoroughmedicalbackground, "thepatientis usually ina poor

positiontoevaluatethe_qualityofcare provided. Shecannotjudgewhethertreatmentis

necessary inthefirstplace,nor whetherthebestpossibletreatmentisbeing

provided."36

Ordinarily,thisalone would notbeaproblem. Apatienttrustsinthedoctor'smedical

knowledgeand assumesthat thedoctor has evaluatedalloptionsandpresentedthebest

choiceforthepatient's well-being. Afterall, thepatient soughtthedoctor's advice, since

36

Bentley,Judith. The National Health CareControversy. NewYork:Franklin_Watts, 1981.

he/shecould notcometohis/herown conclusion withoutthe_helpof a professional. The

problem occurs when one_{demographic group holds all ofthepowerto shapemedicine.}

As it_developed,medicine becamea patriarchal monopoly. When diagnosisis limitedto

one_{group, thatgroupwields enormous power and social control. Feminists}

argueagainst

amalemonopoly, that"onagut_{level, [I]}amnowconvincedthatit isamostbasic

violation of our civilrights fora_groupthatisnot at_{any risk from} reproduction_[male]to

controlthe_groupthatisatrisk[female]."37

Asmedicine professionalizedinthe 19"1_{centurymedicine,}doctorsexperienced

andincrease inpower and prestige. _Theygainedthe _abilitytoshapeandinfluence

society,for "thepower ofthedoctorsas expertswas notthepowertohealordemonstrate

theirknowledge: itwasthepowerto givetheappearanceof_knowing,andtherefore to

judge."38

Medicine becamemysterious and _secretive,and as a_{result, the} generalpublic

lostthe_abilitytodiscernwhatknowledge doctors had. The generalpubliccouldno

longer determinethelimitsof_medicine,anddoctors becamethemain authoritieson

everything fromcontraceptiontoexercise.This isadangerthatmustbe_combated,and

pieces likethe_emptymedicalbooks,PillSwallowandblank fortunecookies challenge

thesecretive_authorityofdoctorsandencouragethepublictobecomemore

knowledgeableabouttheirownhealthand_activelyparticipateintreatmentoption

decisions.

'The doctor-patient relationship is anideal oneforthetransmissionofalmost_any kindofmessagethat_{doctors may feel inclined}toconvey. Giventhe_intimacyand

37

Corea,Gena. The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Womenas PatientsandProfessionals. New York: William Morrowand_Company,Inc.

1977. 38

Dally,Ann. WomenundertheKnife:A_{Historyof Surgery. New York: Routledge,}

authoritarianismbuiltintothe_{relationship,}andtheprestige and assumedexpertise

ofthedoctor,thepatientis _likelytotake such messages much more _seriouslythan

he/shewouldfromotherpeople."39

The doctor'srole_{is authoritative, but}thepersontreateddoes notevenhave tobe

sick. Doctorsnowhavepower over_healthypatients(preventativecare),and even people

who are not patientsatall (theparents ofa sick_child,forinstance). _"Whydopeople

submittothiskindof_{relationship,} giventhatit ischaracterized_by adegreeof_intimacy

and_authoritythatwouldbe considered_humiliatingin_anyothersocialrelationship?

Because_theyexpecttogetimmediaterelief orhelp,"40andthatisoftenthecase.

"What is especiallysignificantis thatthedoctors have held ontotheir_monopoly over communication with patients: nurses andtechnicians_maychat,but_they

cannot comment on your x-rays... Intheeyes ofthepatient,thecontributions of

all other workersare_secondary

-onlythedoctor hasthepowerto

cure."41

WiththeWomen's Health Movementand ageneral_awakeningofthepublic

senses,the_{doctor-patient relationship has been gradually changing}toa more equal one.

Healthcareinitiatives haveencouragedpatientstobecomemore_savvyand

self-sufficient. Nowitseemsthat"themedicalprofession viewslimitedself-medicationas a

vital component ofhealth

care."42

Withanincrease inthe specialists andthe total

number of_doctors,medicinehas becomea provider-consumer_{relationship,}wherethe

patientholdsmore ofthepowerin choosingtheoptionsopentohim/her.

Notall cultural critics speak_negativelyaboutthedoctor-patientrelationship. One

authorclaims that thedoctor-patientrelationship:

39

Ehrenreich,BarbaraandJohn. MedicineandSocial Control. 1978. 40

Ehrenreich,BarbaraandJohn. MedicineandSocial Control. 1978.

41

Ehrenreich,BarbaraandJohn. MedicineandSocial Control. 1978. 42

Cayleff, Susan E. Self-HelpandthePatent Medical Business. 1990.

"itselfhasakindoftherapeuticvalue: ifthedoctorcan't solve yourproblem,he

canatleastmanageit. Thetherapeuticvalue of professional _dominance,fromthe

patient's point ofview,isthat the problembecomesthedoctorsproblem. It'snot

foryoutofretorquestion_treatment; it's inthedoctor'shandsnow,andheought

toknowwhathe's doing. Theauthoritarianismofthe_{relationship fosters}a

magicaltransferenceoftheproblemfrompatientto doctor."43

Anotheraspect ofthepatient-doctor_{relationship is}theassessment of

responsibility. Who isresponsibleforthedisease? Ititled _mythesis_{Faulty Femininity}

forafewreasons. _First, "faulty"_{implies something}mechanicalthatworks some ofthe

time,and notallofthe_time,aconceptI feel quite_personallyabout_myown_femininity,

fertility,and reproductive organs. _Second,"faulty"fromtheroot

"fault,"

impliesmoral

culpability. _Again,I ask"who isresponsiblefordisease?" Who hascausedthe inherent

problemswith_beingfeminine? _Whyiswoman seen asan underdevelopedman? _Why

does_beingfemalenecessitate aninherentweakness or anillness simply becauseof one's

femininity? Is itpunishmentfromGod forthesins ofEve?

Inthepast,especiallyduringtheMiddleAges,diseasewas viewed asjustice from

theAlmighty. Religion has oftenshownits authorityoverthe_theoryandpracticeof

medicine. _{Early Christianity}transformedthecause ofthe_wanderingwombfromorganic

(physical)into demonic (caused_bySatan),thereby strengtheningthe bond between

woman and_evil,representedfirst inthecreation_storyandthefall ofEve. _By

overstepping itsbounds,theCatholic Churchcreatedacontradictionfor itself. The

Catholic Church hadalways prized_virginityas a sacred state. The Virgin_Marywas

cleanandfree fromcarnal _sin,thereforeanacceptable vesselforthe_deliveryofGod's

Sonon earth. However, science claimedthat thecauseofthe_wanderingwombwas an

43

unsatiated_womb,andthat_virginitywas not adesirable state. _{Science,therefore,}also

claimedthatsexhada purpose outsideofprocreation andshouldbeviewed asanatural

and_necessaryact. Thechurch could not seethevirginal state as_{pathological,}andit

couldnotchampion sex as a cureforthe_{wanderingwomb,} soitencouraged prayer as a

cure. Alsounderdiscussionwasthenature and causeofdisease. _Bythe timeofthe

Protestant_Reformation,someofthepuzzleshad been workedout.

"Ontheone_hand,healthanddiseasewere matters of naturallaw thatcouldbe

studied_bynaturalists. On_{the other,}Godcouldintervene_directly; so a sorethroat

wasanatural_condition,but itmight alsobeadivinepunishment,and an epidemic

couldbethejudgmentofGodonthefaithlessnessofhis

people."44

In ascientific and rationalage,who replacesGodastheone responsiblefor

disease? _Breakingdownsimple child-like phases aboutillness,forinstance,"I feelbad,

"

reveals moraljudgments attheirbaselevel;"there ismoral_{culpability for getting}

sick."45

Patientsoftenask,_"Why

me?"

Suchquestions strengthentheargumentthatillnesscan

betracedbacktoaneventinthe

patients'

life thatmadethem sick.

'Thissymbolic_{understanding}involvesreadingsofdiseases as message_bearing;

it involves_decodingasifthediseasesweretextsandthesuppositionthatthe

diseases are partof ameaningful

cosmos."46

The_{responsibility}forthedisease lies withthe patient,aspart ofthejusticesystem

ina"meaningful

cosmos."

Such ridiculous "and dangerousviewsmanagetoputthe

onusofthediseaseonthepatient and not_onlyweakenthepatient's_abilitytounderstand

therange ofplausiblemedicaltreatmentbutalso,implicitly,directthepatientaway from

44

Pickstone,John V. Ways ofKnowing:A New_HistoryofScience, Technologyand Medicine. Chicago: The_UniversityofChicagoPress, 2000.

45

Zola,IrvingKenneth. Medicineas anInstitutionofSocial Control. 1978. 46

Pickstone,JohnV. _{Ways ofKnowing:}ANew_HistoryofScience, Technologyand Medicine. Chicago:The_UniversityofChicagoPress,2000.

suchtreatment"47Therearepowerful stereotypes_regardingthe"sick" andthosewho

havethepowertodefinewhatis "sick"_{wield enormous social control.}

Theshiftinthepower structure ofpatient-doctor_relationshiptowardsa much

more equitable_balance,andthebreakdownofthemale_monopoly onmedicinehas

slowlydevelopedovertime. _{Surprisingly,}medicinebeganas afemaleoccupation.

Ancient Greekwomen practiced medicine until_they weredeemedunfitto treatpatients

duetotheiracceptance of abortiontechniques. _EarlyChristianwomen weredoctors

-one oftheloweststatusjobs. In 660_AD,theCouncilof_Nantes,decreedthatwomen

weremorelikeanimals_{then men,}andthereforehadnoneedforeducation.

"Thus begancenturies of_denyingeducationtowomen,asituationthatpavedthe

way formaledominanceinmedicine, maledefinitionofmedicalskills andindeed medicine_itself, andmalecontrol overtherighttopractice."48

Somewomenfoughtforeducationand"theearliestformaleducationofAmerican

women practitionerstookplacein irregularcolleges."49

In_America, irregularcolleges,or

"sectarian",began accepting femalestudents. Sectarian_medicine, as opposedto the

tradition.al allopathic_medicine,hadamuchmorefeminineapproach- it's

goals wereto

nurture andtreatthewholepatient,atreatmentI callfor invideoslike Cut Lines.

Famous 19th

centurywomendoctors_includingDr. Elizabeth BlackwellandDr._Mary

Putnam Jacobiwere_{completely divided in}termsof_theoryand practice. Dr. Blackwell

thought that gynecological surgeries encouraged mentoexperiment on_women,and she

"challengedovarian diseaseasthe cause ofinsanity,"50whileDr. Putnam Jacobiagreed

47

Sontag,Susan. IllnessasMetaphor. New York:Farrar, Straus.andGiroux, 1997. 48

Driefus,Claudia. _SeizingourBodies. New York: Vintage_Books, 1978. 49

Rogers, Naomi. WomenandSectarian Medicine. 1990 50

with gynecological _surgery as_{necessary for}thehealthofthepatient. Eventhough_many

womentrainedasdoctorsinthe 19"1_century,themedical establishmentcontinuedto

argue_theywere unfittopractice. Theargumentin thesecondhalfofthe 19*_centurywas

that"itwouldbetoo_embarrassingfora womentotreatmale

patients."

Further,itwas

pervertedforafemaledoctortodesiretotreatmale_{patients,however,}no argumentwas

madeagainstmaledoctors_treatingfemalepatients. Medicine fearedthatfemale doctors

wouldlosetheir_femininity,andmalepatients exposedtofemale doctors wouldbecome

excitedand unmanageable. Despitecourageouswomen who enduredthecriticism ofthe

medical_{establishment,by}thelate 1970'sthemedicalfieldwas still_{predominantly}male.

In 1905,fourpercent ofdoctorswerefemale. _{By 1925,}thepercentageoffemale doctors

had only risenone percent. 1955saw women as six percent of_doctors,and_{by 1977,only}

nine percentofthe totalnumber ofdoctorswere women. Thepercentageof women

doctorsreached 16%in 1980andhassinceleveledout at around 17%. The field isstill

predominantlymale,makingmedicine a male monopoly.

"Gynecologistscould control womenthroughmedicaltheories thatwere assumed

tobescientific_discoveries,butwhich_were, in factpermeatedwithstereotypes

about women's nature and

role."51

Keeping anopen_mind,and_basingtheorieson sound physicalexperimentation,

withouttheinfluenceofstereotypes,is extremely difficult inthemalemonopoly of

medicine. Butthe_waymedicine saw women wasextremely complexandbasedon a

varietyoffactors. Womenwere controlledbytheirhormonesandtheirreproductive

tracts;theytendedtoinventsymptoms, and often sufferedfrommental_disorders;their

51

Corea,Gena. The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Womenas PatientsandProfessionals. New York: WilliamMorrowand_Company,Inc.

1977.

79-sexdrive wasinferiorand_{unimportant;they}were_shyand reserved abouttheirsexuality;

and_theywere_whollyunawareoftheintricateworkings oftheirbodies.

Victorianmedicine_{especially liked}to thinkofwomenas_shyandreserved.

Doctors feltthatwomendidnotliketodiscussintimatesymptoms,andcould notsuffer

theembarrassment ofapelvic exam. Asa_result,Victoriandoctors skippedpreventative

care,inordertopreservethe_modestyoftheir patients. Some doctorsevenapplauded

womenwho suffered symptomswithout_seekinghelp, outof embarrassmentat_havingto

discuss intimate detailswitha maledoctor. Dr. Charles Meigsstated:

"it isperhapsbestonthe_whole,that thisgreatdegreeof_modestyshould exist

eventotheextentof_puttingabartoresearches, without which no clear and

understandablenotions canbeobtained ofthesexual disorders. IconfessI am

proudto_saythatinthis_{country [.}.

.] therearewomenwho prefertosufferthe extremityofdangerand painratherthanwaivethosescruples of_delicacywhich preventtheirmaladiesfrom_beingfully explored. _{I say it is} an evidence ofthe

dominionoffine morality inour

society."52

Meigsadmitted that_modestypreventedserious _scholarshipand_effectivelystated

thathewould preferto_keepthestatus quothansearchforcures. Womenshouldlearnto

suffer ratherthanappealto theirdoctorsforsolutions,especially insensitive,

gynecological matters. Ofcoursehefailstomention athirdsolution:womendoctors

workingwithfemalepatients couldbothpreserve_modestyand_{simultaneously}workfora

cure.

Medicinealsotendedtodescribewomen as_{wholly drivenby}theirreproductive

capabilities. Manyillnessesweretraced touterine_fits,and medicineseemedtostatethat

women were mindless automatons- _{auterus covered}inskin. Suchsuppositionshavea

52

Corea,Gena. The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Womenas PatientsandProfessionals. New York: WilliamMorrow andCompany,Inc.

basisinbiblicalliterature,whereGodmade_{Eve for Adam. Reproductionisher}

punishment_{for eating from}the treeoflife. Victorianwriters_argued,"IfGoddidn't

intendwomanto_playa subordinate rolein life... _whywasn'tAdamgivento_Eve,

insteadofEvetoAdam?"5*

Whendiseaseswere nottracedto out-of-whackreproductive_organs,theywere

blamedon mentaldisorders.

"Gynecology textbooksoften conditiondoctors tosuspectapsychosomatic ailment whenawoman presentsacomplaint Inthe 1971 editionofOffice

Gynecology,forexample,Dr. Greenhillobservedthat_'manywomen_wittinglyor unwittingly exaggeratethe_severity oftheircomplaintsto_gratifyneurotic

desires.'"54

Infact,in 1972an estimated_twentypercentofwomen patientswere givenmental drugs

todealwith a physical condition_that, if inmales,wouldbetreated_bymedication. Men

describe_symptoms, butwomen complain. In _1971,seventy-two percent of

antidepressantuserswerewomen. _AccordingtoDr. Kathryn_Keller,thestatistic remains

the sametoday. Over 70% oftoday'santidepressant usersarefemale. Doctorsoften

attribute women's physical symptomstomental_{disorders,affecting}not_onlythepatients'

continuingcare, butalsotheirstate of mind. _Manywomenaretreatedformental

disorders,andtheirsymptomsdonot subside. Ratherthan_{investigating}theeffectiveness

ofthe_treatment,thewomanis told to'bepatient,'

andthat'it'sallinyourhead,' a

dangerousaccusation,asitcanleadtomisdiagnosis andunsuccessfultreatments.

53

Corea,Gena. The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Womenas PatientsandProfessionals. New York: William Morrow andCompany,Inc.

1977.

54

Corea,Gena. The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Womenas PatientsandProfessionals. NewYork: William MorrowandCompany,Inc.

1977.

Women are madetofeel_inadequate,asifit istheir_{fault for remaining} sick. _{If onlythey}

would straighten outtheirmental_{problems, theirphysical symptoms woulddisappear.}

Sadly, bytreating onlyformental _{disorders,doctors misstheroot physicalcauses of}

some_{diseases,includingendometriosis. Physical disordersare misdiagnosed as mental}

conditions, and not_{accurately treated,} whilethewomanfeelsno relief.

'Theoriesthatdiseases arecaused_bymental statesand canbecured_bywill

power are alwaysanindexofhowmuchis not understood aboutthephysical

terrainofadisease... Moreover,thereis_a

peculiarlymodern predilectionfor psychological explanationsof_disease,asof_everythingelse. _{Psychologizing}

seemstoprovide control over experiences andevents overwhichpeoplehave in fact little or nocontrol."55

Blaminga mental conditionforthephysical symptomsof women attacksboththe search

fora_cure, andthepatient's self-esteem.

Finally,medicine_typicallyviewswomenas children. Somephysicianswould not

be completelystraight withtheirfemalepatientsbecausethe doctors didnotthink that

theirpatientswould understand. This policy isevidentinthe testimoniesatthe 1970

Senate_hearingon oral contraceptives. _Manywomenwere nottoldaboutthe_manyside

effects ofthe pill,astheirdoctorsfeltthat_theywould not understand.

"Medicine,likethe_{Constitution,}isformen. Forcenturies,women wereburned atthestake as witchesfor practicingmedicine,butnowthefocusofthe

punishmentisreversed. It iswhenwomen are sickthat_theyaremost_evil,most

threateningto theegos ofmaledoctors. This is because many doctorscannot admiterror and_increasinglywomenare_askingthem to doso."56

55

Sontag,Susan. IllnessasMetaphor. New York:Farrar,Straus andGiroux, 1997.

56

Corea,Gena. The Hidden Malpractice: How American Medicine Treats Womenas PatientsandProfessionals. New York: William Morrow and_Company, Inc.

A studyofthe_historyof women's medicine would notbecomplete without an

exploration ofone of science's_{earth-shattering inventions}

-thex-ray. Asa visual_artist,

Iam_{especially interested in}thedevelopmentof medical_imagingandthealmost

exclusive useofthefemale_bodytocharttheinteriorhuman landscape.

"Bytheend ofthe 19th_century, mostdiseaseswere well describedin detailonthe autopsytableas well asthemicroscope. There was_onlyone painfullimitation:

explanation ofthe_livingwasstillbasedon_{palpating,listening}and_studyingcase

histories

-all _{veryimportant,}yet_lackingvisualconfirmation."57

The_discoveryofthe_x-raywould changeall_{that,rocking both}themedical world

andtheart world withitsnew glimpseinsidethe_livinghuman body. In 1895,William

Roentgen,while_{experimenting}withcathode_rays,discoveredthat thebariumplatinum

cyanidein his labfluorescedwhenexposedto thecathode rays. Whenheplaced objects

(wood,paper, etc)betweentherays andthebariumplatinumcyanide,itcontinuedto

fluoresce,butstoppedwhenbonesorlead interruptedthepath. Not_knowingwhattocall

theinvisiblerays,hecontinuedtoexperiment with_"x"-rays,and_quicklypublishedhis

findings. Thearticles wereillustrated_byan_x-rayofhiswife'shand (with wedding_ring),

effectively startingafashioncraze,wherewomen'shandswithjewelswere x-rayed.

'The female hand x-ray becameafetish

object,"58

showing both fascinationandfearof

the_bodyx-rayed. RoentgenwontheNobel Prizein 1901 for his_discovery ofthex-ray.

Therewere_earlyexamplesofthedangersof_{x-ray (thebodilydeterioration,}

burns,blistersanddeathofThomas Edison'sassistant,Dally),but becausetheeffectsof

the_{x-ray happened}weeks afterexposure, theconnection wasinitiallydoubted. The

x-57

Doby,T. andG. Alker. OriginsandDevelopment_{ofMedical Imaging. Carbondale:}

SouthernIllinois_{University Press,} 1997. 58

Cartwright,Lisa. _ScreeningtheBody:_TracingMedicine's Visual Culture.

Minneapolis:_UniversityofMinnesota_Press, 1995.

rayrevolutionizedmedicine_byproviding a glimpseintothe_livinghuman_body, andits

potential sideeffects wereoften overlooked.

It is_interestingthat, _{"although radiology} was practicedalmost_{exclusivelyby}

menin its firstdecades,women's bodieswere oftentestobjectsof_earlyimaging

research."59

Mammography, however,was notintroduceduntilthe 1960's, and"the

reluctance_{regarding breast}x-rays(despitedocumented_research)underscores medicine's

historicallackof regardfordiseasethatoccurs_primarilyin

women."60

Inthe _1900's,people werex-rayed_standingup,so_gravityacted ontheorgansand

meant_they werein differentplacesthaninthecorpses_previouslyexaminedonthe

autopsyanddissectiontables. Thisobservationledto thediagnosisinwomen of

"ptosis,"

orthedisplacementandretroversion oftheuterus. Withthe_wanderingwomb

theorygoingoutof_style, ptosis providedanew ailmentforwomenbasedontheir

wombs. Ifthewomb was adifferentshape,orlocatedinadifferentpositioninthe_body

(asevidenced_byan_{x-ray),pathology}was_suspected,andtreatment_{included surgery}or

insertedpropstorepositiontheuterus.

Roentgen discoveredthe_{x-ray in}thesame yeartheLumiere Brothers introduced

themotion picture. Soonthe twoinventionscombined,and_x-raymotion pictures made a

huge impacton publicunderstanding. The x-raystillevokes death,butthe_movingx-ray

putlife back intothemorbid. Researchers atthe_University ofRochester didextensive

work withthe_movingx-ray,butnot alwaysfortheadvancementofmedicine. Some

movieswere madefortheirentertainmentvalue alone. Some movingx-raysfilms

59

Cartwright,Lisa. _ScreeningtheBody:_TracingMedicine'sVisual Culture.

Minneapolis:_UniversityofMinnesotaPress, 1995.

60

Cartwright,Lisa._ScreeningtheBody:_TracingMedicine's Visual Culture.

included_applyinglipstick, drinking, combinghair,and_{playing instruments.} Women

were mostoftenthesubjectsofsuch_{experiments,receiving}copious amountsofthe

dangerousx-rays. Someexposurestooklongerthan_{thirty minutes,resulting in}serious

burns daysafterthedose.

The x-ray becamesexualized spectacle anda newmode ofillicit looking.

Suddenly,not eventheinnerspace of one's_bodycouldbeprotected. The x-ray blursthe

lineofthepublic and_{private,threatening}toexposure ourinner_selves,our_secrets,and

ourinternalstate ofhealth. Iexploretheinnerand outer selvesinpieceslike_Twirl,

wherethereisadiscord betweeninnerand outer appearances. Thevisual component of

Twirl depictsahabitgone out ofwhack, however,theaudioisneveraffected,asifthe

physicaland mental selvesare somehow_operatingseparately.

'ThetechniqueRoentgen introducedwith_{his x-ray}experiments wasthe subject

of publichysterianotbecause itwas_{shockinglynew,}but because itusheredinto

therealmofsciencea_disturbingtechniqueof_bodilyrepresentation_long

circulating inmetaphysicsand public entertainment.. . Lightbecomesabrutal

forcethat_physicallypenetratesan_{object strippingaway its concealing} surfaceto

layitsstructurebare."61

Atatimewhen women were_rebellingagainsttheirstrict societal_{roles, their}bodieswere

"singledoutasterritories_suddenlyopento

exposure."62

Somepeoplethought that the_x-raywould revealthathumansare allthesame

inside. Ifwe_{strip away}thecultural and gender roles(skinand_clothing)- _will the x-ray

provethatweare all equal?

'The x-raysignifiestheultimate violation oftheboundariesthatdefine

subjectivityandidentity,_exposingtheprivateinteriorto thegaze ofmedicine and

61

Cartwright,Lisa._Screening theBody:_TracingMedicine's Visual Culture. Minneapolis:_University ofMinnesotaPress, 1995.

62

Holtzmann-Kevles,Bettyann. Nakedto theBone: MedicalImagingintheTwentieth

Century. NewBrunswick: Rutgers_UniversityPress, 1997.