Designer crafts practice in context

City, University of London Institutional Repository

Citation: Summerton, J.L. (1990). Designer crafts practice in context. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London)

This is the accepted version of the paper.

This version of the publication may differ from the final published version.

Permanent repository link: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/7724/

Link to published version:

Copyright and reuse: City Research Online aims to make research outputs of City, University of London available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the author(s) and/or copyright holders. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to.

City Research Online: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/ [email protected]

DESIGNER CRfW TS PRACTICE IN CONTEXT

Janet Louise Summerton

City University

Department _of Arts Policy

and Management

PAGE NUMBERS

CUT OFF IN

PAGE MISSING

TABLE _{OF CONTENTS}

Page

List _of Tables & Diagrams 4

Acknowledgements 5

Abstract 6

Chapter 1 Introduction 8

Background, _purpose

scope and method

Chapter 2 Who is An Artist? Labels 34

and How They Have Changed

a discussion of the evolution of

terms to describe _{visual artists}

illustrating the lack _{of shared}

definitions

Chapter 3 Society _and Its Visual Artists 50

a discussion of some of the issues

regarding the social context of

visual art today.

Chapter 4 The Mystique _of Artists & Craftsmen 68

a look at the contemporary

mythology of artists and craftspeople

considering the historical antecedents

Chapter 5 The Business _{of Success in the 62}

Visual Arts

A discussion _{of what constitutes}

success for the _{self-employed}

visual _{artist and a comparison}

with other micro businesses.

Chapter _{6 Art World: Craft World}

Introduction _and discussion _of the

sociological concept of artworlds

96

Chapter 7 The Modern Craft Tradition ₁₀₈

a discussion of the roots of the

ambiguous contemporary craft

tradition

Chapter 8 Organisational _{Development and 138}

The Rise _of State Provision

An outline of the development of

organisations and _state provision

in the _{crafts milieu} in the last

fifty _years

Chapter _{9 Craft, Design Craft, Art Craft 161}

Delineating _{Contemporary Independent}

Practice

A discussion _{of sectors within the}

crafts milieu, _{considering workstyles,}

ideology _{and organisational}

settings

Chapter 10 Design Crafts, _{A Close-up 184}

The _{concept of design craft is}

analysed in more detail, _with the

help _of information _{from a}

number of practitioners

Chapter 11 Designer Craftspeople _{and 212}

Organisational Provision;

Match _or Mismatch

The _{practitioners' perspective}

is _{compared with their milieu and}

Some of the _{elements of} disharmony

are discussed.

Chapter 12 Facilitating Successful Practice ₂₃₈

Successful _{independent practice} is

reconsidered: the _shortcomings in

current _{provision of support} is

identified, _{with suggestions and}

recommendations.

Concluding _{Remarks 259}

Bibliography ₂₆₂

List _of Tables _and Diagramm

Page No.

5.1 The Continuum _of Small business,

Micro Business _and Freelance 94

9.1 Work _{sites and work styles} 163

9.2 Shift in Definitions _of Craft

Sectors 169

9.3 Art, Craft _and Industry 172

9.4 Distinctions _of Craft, Design

Craft _and Arts Sectors 181

10.1 A Model for Small Home Furnishing

Products 204

10.2 A Model for Large Home Furnishing

Products 205

10.3 A Model for Wall Hangings _and

Tapestries 206

10.4 _{A Model} for Commissioned Design

Craft for Interior _and

Architectural Settings ₂₀₇

10.5 Patterns _of Practice ₂₁₀

Ackrwwledge=sts

I _would like to thank Dr. _{Eric Moody for his patient}

assistance and guidance _{as my supervisor.} The _{work was}

also assisted by other colleagues in the Department of

Arts Policy _and Management _{and the great number of people}

who generously gave their time to _{answer my questions and}

discuss _{my concerns.} Particularly _{I would like to thank}

Kenneth Clark _of the Society _of Designer Craftsmen, _and

my personal backup team _of Maggi, Ken _and Peter for their

help _{and support.} And thanks _{are also} due to that _small

group of visual artists in Vancouver who inspired and

informed this _research.

Powers _{of discretion are hereby granted to the University}

Librarian _{to copy this thesis, in}

whole _or in _part,

without further _{reference to the author. Such}

permission

covers _{only single copies for study purposes,}

subject to

normal _{conditions of}

acknowledgment.

DESIEWER CRAFTS PRACTICE IN CONTEXT

Abstract

This _{research attempts} to identify _{patterns of successful}

independent _{practice among contemporary visual arts}

practitioners for the purpose _of increasing understanding

of the structures of and activity within the visual arts

in England. The intention is to draw _conclusions

regarding how such practice can be facilitated and

supported.

pecxfically it looks _{at a particular} kind _{of practice} in

the _{area of design craft, and at the organisations}

charged with the _{responsibility} for _{state provision,}

setting this critique in _{a context} of a historical _and

social perspective.

Much _{of recent conventional practice} in the _{visual arts}

is _{considered to} have _{a narrow view of what constitutes}

acceptable _{practice and} is based _{on the gallery-based}

fine _{arts model. This model is a dubious base line from}

which to _{encourage a} healthy _{range of} independent

practice, _and is _of little _use to the _{practitioners in}

this _{study, and others of similar intent. The}

practitioners _encountered in this _{research might be}

considered _{applied artists, as they} have _{a need to engage}

with _{a public} during the _{processes of conception,}

creation _{and selling of} their _work.

The _patterns have been documented _with the _{assistance of}

concepts regarding small business, particularly a

subsector called micro business. Micro business has

recently been identified to describe a pattern of

activity which is not conducted for _{profit or with} goals

of expansion. The motivation behind micro business is to

maintain self determination.

Chapter 1- INTRODUCTION

1. PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

This _research looks _{at contemporary independent crafts}

practice. It considers the _{place of craft} within

contemporary visual arts and attempts to identify the

predominant modes of practice in the craft milieu. It

examines the effect historical antecedents and influences

have had _on the _{perceptions and practice of makers,}

networks, _neighbours and interested others. Independent

self-employed practice is further refined into different

strands of activity which can be distinguished by

ideology, _{workstyles and organisational settings.} Within

one of these strands _- labelled design craft -, evidence

is _{presented of successful independent practice} in _a

variety of patterns. The identification and examination

of such patterns could inform other makers, mediators,

educators and policy makers in their encouragement and

support of larger numbers of people in viable independent

practice within the crafts _milieu. This is seen to have

implications for _{others who are operating as} independent

practitioners in the visual arts.

Work _{which once seemed to fit happily in the jurisdiction}

of crafts has evolved to form _{new relationships with} its

neighbours in the _{visual arts,} industry _{and society as a}

whole. To _more fully _understand the _contemporary

practice _of the individual _{makers and} the _{practice of the}

mediators _{and educators,} it _{was necessary to trace}

craft's _changing definitions, _{mythology, organisational}

settings _{and shifts} in _{perceptions. The research}

attempts _also to interweave _{the information and}

understandings from _{within the crafts and the visual arts}

milieu with, albeit selective, _evidence from the wider

social context. A main _{purpose of} the _research is to

counter the mythology _{which suggests} the _prospect of a

Brim and unprofitable future for the _{majority of} people

choosing careers as professional _{self-employed} visual

artists of all kinds.

In _{some regards,} the _{specific area of the visual arts}

being _{examined can be viewed as a new area of activity,}

only identifiable since the mid twentieth century. It

can be seen as an evolving response, in part, to the

dilemma _{of a role} for _crafts in _an industrial _and

post-industrial Western economy. Part of the appeal of

craft as a profession is its uniqueness as a particular

way of _work. In this _sense it _{offers a haven} from what

is _perceived to be the _{predominant work ethos.} It is

seen as a respectable profession offering the autonomy of

self determination _{and relative economic} independence.

This _{sector has also -provided a haven} for _some fine

tr tittt and fine _{art graduates.} ' In this _context it

can be seen _{as a retreat} from dominant trends in the fine

arts world and from the _attendant ideology.

The _{research builds on information from earlier studies}

and reports, particularly Brighton _and Pearson (1985)

and Bruce and Filmer (1983). These _{were surveys}

concerned _with identifying the _{variety and nature of}

visual _{arts activity.} The Economic Situation _{of the}

Visual _{Artist by Brighton and Pearson focused on the}

Miliw _{of professional} fine _artists. 2 _{Working in-}

Craft _{by Bruce and Filmer surveyed the}

socioeconomic

conditions _{of craftspeople.}

Brighton _{and Pearson (1985) were particularly}

useful to

this _{work in providing a model of the}

structure _{of an art}

world (a specific social _{system) and} insights into the

differing _{perceptions and} intentions _{of artists.} Bruce

and Filmer (1983) provided information _{on the} tensions

caused by conflicting ambitions _{among craftspeople} who

also identify with fine _{art aspirations and role models.}

Brown (1985) _and Channon _{(1987) looked at the business}

aspects of independent visual _{arts practice} and provided

valuable information from _a different _perspective than

the first two. _{Brown's A Profile of the Business of}

Crafts is _{an analysis of the results of five surveys and}

studies conducted in the crafts milieu between 1977 and

1982 _{and pinpointed areas where further research was}

needed to fill in a picture _of the _structure of the craft

sector. Channon's Marketing Skills for Craftspeople is

based _{on research of craftspeople in the South} West.

A _{shared strength of these four reports} is their

contribution to the demystification _of the _{visual arts}

milieu and _{specific sectors within} it. This _{process of}

shedding mo re light _on the _{visual arts also} begins to

delineate the _{stru ctures, operat} ing _{principles and}

practices _{o f the visual arts milieu.} This _{research seeks}

to further _{expose these structur es, principles and}

practices.

In _{contrast to these earlier undertakings this is an}

attempt to _{provide an integrated and more comprehensive}

view _{of a narrow slice of a particular area of visual}

arts. The specific _{sector of} design _{craft is considered}

to be _{adjacent to the segment considered by Brighton}

and

Pearson _{and part of the segment covered by the three}

other studies mentioned.

I _{conducted research within the}

sector, drew _{on selected}

historical _{material and have}

added insights from

contemporary disciplines other than the visual arts. I

have tried to illustrate _{both a broad and a specific}

picture, elucidating some _of the _contributing factors

which seem to be relevant to the _primary task _of gaining

understanding of successful _{self-employed practice} in the

visual arts. My approach has been _similar to that

described by Sparke (1986)

"The _picture... ti

the _{sum of} its

that _{a picture}

makes sense when

glimpses of the

along the way. "s

ius presented emerges as

parts rather like the way

'painted _{by numbers' only}

it is finished _even though

final image _can be _grasped

Little _{comprehensive research} has been done in this

specific visual arts sector, although the Filmer and

Bruce _{report was comprehensive in providing a preliminary}

mapping the the independent, _{self-employed} sector of the

crafts in England _and Wales. Writers _and researchers

such as Frayling, Dormer, Snowden, Houston, Freeman, to

name just _a few, have _added insights _{on some aspects of}

the _{contemporary crafts milieu and its allied fields.}

The _{work of two American sociologists, Howard Becker and}

Jerry Neapolitan, _{have also contributed to our}

understanding of this field.

Researchers _{in art history, social history of art and}

sociology of art have looked at other parts of the _visual

arts _{milieu as have cultural economists.} Design history

is _{still a fairly new area of study. Craft history as a}

distinct _{discipline is just beginning. Of necessity}

therefore, _{this work reflects a synthesis}

of ideas

extrapolated from _{a variety of sources.}

The designer _{craftspeople encountered during the}

specific

study _work independently _{and are self-employed either}

part _or full time. Most _{of them have created, or feel}

confident that they _{will be able to create, successful}

professional careers. This is, in _part, determined by

attitudes related to their confidence in their abilities

to determine their _{successful combination of activities.}

They _{may call} themselves _{by any combination of labels;}

artist, craftsperson, designer _{or maker, or} by the

specific name related to their _media. It _must be noted

that the _perceived degradation _{of the term 'craft'} has

led to the _{majority not using} it in _{self-definition.}

These _people do _not fit the _{most common stereotypes of}

visual artists. For they are not poor, misunderstood

creators of autonomous work who are unable to find a

public willing to support and appreciate them. They do

not aspire to become a superstar of the gallery and

collector art or art craft world. Nor are they

producers _{of work} which _some in the visual arts

establishments _{may call} 'too _commercial' and lacking in

artistic integrity.

They do _{not feel they fit easily under} the _ambiguous

umbrella term _{of craft.} They _{occupy a middle ground}

between _{what are our most common or folk understandings}

of art, craft and design. They have different

perspectives, intentions, _{needs and} opportunities from

other groups of visual artists, including those of their

closest neighbours, artist craftspeople and craftspeople.

Brighton _{and Pearson (1985) suggested two definitions of}

professional _artist:

l. those _who define _{themselves in a public and}

practical way as _wanting to _{make a living} from

their _{art, always looking for ways and}

means to

sell themselves and their _{work, and}

2. those for _whom the definition _{of artist means a}

personal exploration, making sense of one's life.

Many _of those _questioned for _{the study do not subscribe}

to _either definition _exclusively. They _are trying to

balance the tension _{created by subscribing} to _{elements of}

both. Often to have the first definition _{as part of}

their _{repertoire means} that these _{and similar visual}

artists are considered by some in the visual arts milieu

to _{be of} lesser _{stature and not} 'real' _artists.

The _{study also analyses} the _{role and practices of} the

state provision through the Crafts Council, Regional Arts

Associations _{and others} in terms _of their _relevance to

this _{particular sector of activity.} Although, _of

necessity, there is some criticism of those who are in a

position to influence the visual arts as a whole and

specifically the crafts milieu, the intention is to be

constructive throughout this analysis. Most of the

detailed information, _{and consequently} the _main focus, is

on the situation in England but information from

Scotland, Wales _and further _afield has _also informed the

discussion.

Some initiatives by _{state providers} have _contributed to

the _{success of} these _{and similar visual artists. The}

analysis _also seeks to show, however, where this

provision has been lacking. In the same manner I have

looked _{at some educational provision within art schools -}

$or their influence is _{undoubtedly a major one. Some}

educational _and training _{opportunities outside} the _art

schools are also included.

Certain _{biases in this work are already evident. It does}

not _{endorse a concept of a} hierarchy _{of inherent}

aesthetic _{values of visual arts activity, but recognises}

a hierarchy of both financial value and access, related

to _{a socioeconomic} hierarchy _{of support. '`} It is _my

contention that the dominant _course of recent

conventional practice in the _{visual arts as a whole,} and

especially crafts, is bound _{up with a particular} view of

what constitutes acceptable _{visual arts practice.} This

view appears to be grounded in an implicit assumption

that _{contemporary policy and practice,} for _{most visual}

arts receiving public support, _should be patterned on the

gallery-based contemporary fine arts model. This

influences the thinking _{and practice of policy makers,}

funders, _{educators, administrators and other mediators as}

well as practitioners throughout much of the visual

arts. Of particular interest here will be the practice

of those connected with what has been known as the craft,

design _{craft or art craft segment.}

The _{gallery-based model is considered} to _{be of dubious}

value _{as a} base line from _which to encourage a healthy

range _{of visual arts practice} in general, and is of

little _use to the _{visual artists} in this _{study, and}

others of similar intent.

Gallery-based _{models present various constraints. Of}

most relevance to this discussion are two restrictions in

particular:

1. Gallery-based _{models provide limited}

opportunities for only a few visual artists, _and

2. The _gallery format _{may be considered to be in}

conflict with _{some of} the _{products and} the

aspirations of the _{visual artists} in this _research

and others of similar _professional intent. "

It _seems that inherent in _{a gallery-based model are the}

principles of scarcity, _{rarity, and} hierarchy _{of visual}

arts pursuits. An essential _element in _{a gallery model}

is, therefore, _{the practice of denying access to many}

who aspire to participate in this _arena.

The _{concept of hierarchy would have us believe that fine}

arts in a gallery _{setting represent} the _{apex of}

achievement for the _{visual artist.} The _galleries

themselves _{are seen to be in hierarchical order. This}

notion also _subscribes to _{an ascending order of quality}

of work to be found _{within galleries.} Thus _visual

artists _are to be _encouraged to _work their _{way up the}

ladder _{to the sanctified gallery environment where 'true}

art' _can flourish beyond the _{confines of} the _crass

socioeconomic _environment. Those _{who mediate and}

legislate _{on behalf of the visual arts often see a}

primary _{responsibility of} their _{role as having} to _provide

these _{rungs on the ladder through a variety of exhibition}

opportunities. To follow _{such a course of action} denies

the limitations _{of gallery and exhibition modes of}

practice.

Galleries _{also define, and thereby restrict, the concept}

of what _{constitutes visual arts products} because _only

certain kinds _{of visual art works} fit in to the _gallery

environment. Explaining this Cork (1974) _said,

"The National Gallery _{is the prototype of}

art's official _{containment ...} All the

disparate kinds _{of commission have dropped}

away, one by _{one, and} in their _{place a}

sing e, uniform _space has _asserted its

dominance,

... regarded as the automatic

repository for _{art work, ...} tits] _natural

destination

... a universal solution to

where _art can find _{a place} in _contemporary

society... Cand] _{a system of presentation}

which rips art _{out of} the _{specific social}

contexts _{which produce} it. "&

The _{gallery-based model for}

visual _{arts other} than the

contemporary fine arts of _{a certain} kind has influenced

the _{work of practitioners who would not necessarily have}

had _aspirations to _{operate exclusively in that milieu.}

In the _{case of much within the crafts milieu in}

particular, the gallery _setting does _{not always enhance}

or do justice to the _work. The problems _{which can arise}

include those _{noted by Coatts (1988) in her review of the}

Tex-style _exhibition.

"The _{exhibition as an experiment}

highlighted the _{eternal problem of the}

functional _{crafts - that they} do _{not speak}

loudly _{enough on their own (and why should}

the ?) in _{anything other than a domestic}

setting, in use _or in _{a very} much

scaled-down and _{sensitively planned}

gallery. It is because _{such works} fare

better in _{a shop, where their tactile}

qualities can also be legitimately

appreciated, _{modern craftspeople} have

wisel (or _{unwittingly) responded} to the

situation _{with ever} larger _{and more}

arresting _{works - exhibition pieces.} "7

The _{gallery setting can also undermine one of the}

essential elements of _{much craft,} that of function, _and

can distance the _objects from _{any sense of usefulness,}

other than _{objects of contemplation.} A similar _concern

was expressed by Banfield (1984) talking _{about an}

exhibition _{of machine art at} MOMA in New York in 1934.

"MOMA's _{purpose... was not to show people}

how _{they could add meaning to their lives}

by buying _{useful objects that were also}

pleasing to the _eye. Rather it _{was to}

display _{machine-made products that could be}

experienced-well, _almost-as fine _art. ""

In _{order to examine the gallery-based model more}

closely

it is _{useful to think of it as a concrete}

expression _{of a}

set of beliefs. These beliefs _{concern the nature of}

contemporary fine _{art and the nature of other kinds of}

visual _{art and visual artists. These beliefs, to be}

discussed _{in more detail in the}

ensuing _chapters,

highlight _{what I consider to be a view}

of the visual arts

which reiterates and gives form to _{elements of myths}

relating to the specialness _{and separateness of a}

particular kind of 'Art'.

Visual _{artists such as those in this study subscribing to}

both _{a private and public definition of art and artist,}

often combined with notions _{of craft and craftspeople;}

design _and designer, _{do not find the gallery-based model}

to be the _{most useful or the most suitable venue or}

opportunity. For these practitioners have a strong need

to _{engage with a public, their customers, or an}

audience. This engagement _with their _{social milieu}

during _{the processes of conception, creation, showing and}

selling is not in keeping with orthodox gallery

practice. Further, the _{gallery-based model emphasises}

the _{autonomous product of individual artists, and thus}

generally _excludes the _{work of} those _{who work} in

collaboration.

The _{recent expansion of public art schemes can be seen as}

an attempt to broaden the _{opportunities} for _artists

beyond _{the gallery. However the dominance of the}

orthodoxy _{of gallery-based models} has influenced the

implementation _{and practice of the schemes. Apart from}

issues _{such as the public display of private art (rather}

than _{truly public art) and the method of selection}

through _{(often publicly funded) mediators, the}

style of

an implementation _{of programme often precludes the}

participation _{of some} designer _{makers and other visual}

artists _{of similar} intent. 40

By documenting _{patterns of success in the}

visual _arts

beyond _{the gallery-based model,}

alternative _{models will}

be _{available for new entrants to the field,}

and for those

still _attempting to build _{careers. It is hoped that}

providers, _{mediators, educators and policy}

makers will be

encouraged to extend their understanding of what the

pang* of what may be considered appropriate aspirations,

opportunities and practice. Thus fewer visual artists

may choose to pursue a career struggling for acceptance

in the limited _{gallery-based worlds.} And non-gallery

practice will once again be a legitimate, sanctioned

choice of activity.

Fine _{artist superstars and} their Art Market dominate both

the _{general and} the _{art press and} thus are the most

public of the visual arts. Other spheres of activity

including both the Craft World _and the Design World-also

have _{a share of superstars who garner relative} amounts of

public attention. But we know little of the worlds of

those _{visual artists whose aspirations and} career goals

are different, more modest perhaps, and integrated into

other segments of society than that of the gallery and

the _collector. There _appear to be large numbers of

visual artists quietly creating a decent living for

themselves, _{often without much recognition} or appropriate

support from the state or the visual arts public

agencies.

Walker (1990) _suggests that the traditional Art History

practice of emphasising a particular model of individual

romantic artist has provided the model for some of the

more recent study of design history, and discusses the

inappropriateness _{of such practice.} It is to be expected

that _craft history is likely to find _similar limitations

if it _continues to develop _{along similar} lines.

The _{visual arts milieu as a whole is a highly fragmented}

and diverse sector of our society. This _research is _not

attempting to make a comprehensive _{analysis of} the _visual

arts in their entirety. Instead, the _{material and} ideas

reflect _a particular combination _of biases towards the

visual arts, based on assumptions which are not

necessarily commonly shared.

The denial _of the _{concept of a visual arts hierarchy is}

one bias. The research is _also based _{on the} belief that

acceptable self-directed _{contemporary visual arts}

practice includes a wide variety _{of activity which can} be

described _as:

1. Producing _{autonomous work which is}

one-of-a-kind,

small batch production or

designed to _{be produced} in larger _numbers

2. Working to the brief _{of others} to _create

something which is integral or complementary to

its _environment, its _context.

. And various other combinations of

employment and self-directed practice.

Further, _{present parameters and understandings in the}

visual arts are considered to be social constructs _which

change over time and are not necessarily shared in this

or other cultures. Thus they are not based _{on eternal}

truths, but have _{risen from a series of historical}

antecedents _{and social conditions.}

One _{of the challenges for those of us who would document}

and describe the _{contemporary situation of any group is}

recognising that the _group is in _{a state of continual}

flux. _{Relationships with other segments of society,}

and

particularly to those in _{positions of power, are shifting}

and will _continue to do so. These _{shifts force changes}

and _realignments to _{occur. It is only possible to}

observe _{some patterns of} behaviour _{and of relationships,}

to look for _{signs of newly emerging patterns, or revived,}

renewed ones, and to look for _{signs of} those _patterns

which are exhausted, or are no longer _appropriate to the

changing milieu. The picture _which is thus built _{up is}

based _{on constellations of behaviours and attitudes which}

are then ascribed labels. However it is important to

bear in _mind that _{actual social discourse is far} less

precise and constant than this _{method might suggest.}

A further _challenge is the lack _{of shared} language _and

agreed definitions about the visual arts. For instance,

the _words 'artist', 'designer' _or 'craftsperson' _conjure

up a divergent set of meanings within any group of

people. And it is common _practice to individually use

these, _{and other words regarding} the _{visual arts,} in both

specific and generic senses. It appears that many of us

use these words in a somewhat archaic sense, based

perhaps on historical myth, on past understandings and on

a one-dimensional view relating, in the main, to the fine

artists. So 'artist' _conjures up a picture of a

particular kind of painter, 'craftsman' conjures up an

image _{of a particular} kind _{of potter or weaver.} Wherever

appropriate in the text, I have _attempted to _{explain my}

meaning of both these 'historic' _words and of words _and

phrases _{which may be unfamiliar} in this _context.

I _{do not enter into extensive discussion of the aesthetic}

content _of the _work. This thesis is influenced by the

position described by Janet Wolff (1981) _{who said, "The}

aesthetic form _originates in _{social processes, class}

relations _{and structural} features _{of society. " The}

discussion _{which follows chooses to focus}

on these _social

processes _{and structural} features.

It is hoped _{that a review of the evidence}

presented will

raise _{some questions:}

Are there indeed _{career patterns which can be}

useful _models for _others in the design _craft

sector?

Would these _{patterns be of value for visual artists}

of similar _persuasion to those identified but

choosing to operate in different _sectors?

What _shifts in _{policy and provision by}

state-supported _{organisations and quangos might}

enhance these patterns _{of practice?}

What implications does _{such a shift} have _{on those}

who would educate and advise both the makers and

the _mediators?

Are there _{any implications in regard to the}

audience, the _{customers and} the _{general public?}

Can _{the more detailed understanding of the}

operation _{of successful enterprise} in this field

inform _{the understanding of those who are}

interested _{in small business?}

How _{does this kind of endeavour relate to other}

parts _of the _{visual arts and} to the _{wider social}

milieu?

2. HAcKSROLRiID

This _work has _{grown out of my long-standing} interest _and

involvement in the field. Twenty _{years ago, after a}

career in teaching and educational _{administration,} I

studied textile arts and briefly _{worked as an independent}

maker. In 1977, in Vancouver, I took over the management

of a group of two hundred craftspeople in a co-operative

association, providing marketing, promotional and other

support, including professional development, through a

range of activities. We established and ran a gallery, a

shop, special events and exhibitions.

The _professional development _{aspect consisted of}

practical activities related to learning and improving

professional practice both for the group and for

individuals. I _{also set up and} taught _professional

practice seminars. Recognising the limitations of our

own resources and information, I developed contacts with

others in Canada _and the United States, and to a lesser

degree _{with people} in the UK. This led to _{running a}

number of conferences designed to inform both

practitioners _{and mediators, primarily about appropriate}

business _{practice. I was also interested in developing a}

sense of context for contemporary craft practice, through

increasing _{understanding of practice in other cultural}

settings.

During _{the eight years of managing the association, I}

witnessed the tensions _and frustrations _{caused by the}

conflict between the _{artistic ethic and} the _potential

opportunities _{which were seen} to be too _{commercial, and}

therefore _{out of the bounds of acceptable practice.}

This _{conflict affected not only the makers but}

also the

mediators _{who were working} directly _{to support the}

makers' activities. It also influenced the decisions of

policy makers and public attitudes.

Within the fluid, _{changing membership of} the _group

strands of practice with different goals, ideologies,

workstyles and market opportunities became evident. A

pattern of response developed which attended to these

differences through _{allocation of resources and provision}

of services.

My _{contact with others outside} the _organisation

reinforced these ideas first evident in the early 1980's

and led to my decision to develop these two particular

ideas _with further _research. The first _was the

dissonance between the _{operational mythologies of visual}

artists and craftspeople relating to their concepts of

the _{profession of artist and} the _{attitudes and skills}

required to function successfully as an independent

business _person. During the _{six years of my research and}

related activities I have found this disharmony (and for

some, an incompatibility) is _evident in this country _and

manifests itself in a variety of attitudes and practice.

The _{individual practitioners in this study were selected}

partly to identify a model of practice which had

integrated _{a visual arts ideology with good business}

practice.

The _{other thread I have attempted to elaborate is the}

concept of different but _{equal strands of practice.}

These _{strands, while obviously not discrete, can assist}

understanding _of this _{sector of} the _{visual arts.}

I _{argue that this concept of identifiable strands}

can be

useful in _{a number of ways.} Specifically it _{might address}

matters _concerning the boundary between _{art and craft,}

and assist providers to develop _{appropriate and different}

strategies. My _{continuing practical work of teaching}

and consulting with makers indicates that another benefit

of such an analysis is the contribution it can make to

their _personal development _{of clarity of purpose and}

sense of order to a hitherto seemingly chaotic

professional sphere.

My background _and interest _{in sociology, psychology, and}

communications has provided insights and direction to

some of the literature and research beyond the specific

visual arts material. It has also influenced the style

of interviews with makers and mediators. I tried to

avoid the seduction of some elements of the mythology

surrounding artists and art. In particular I am

referring to those _{elements which support} ideology and

behaviour _which is _{potentially damaging} to _professional

independent _{practice, such as the concept of a hostile}

and alien _environment, the _{passive role} of visual

artists, and the importance _of talent to success at the

exclusion of other factors. This stance was assisted by

my experience of working directly in the field.

My _{extensive background in the North} American _social

sciences has influenced _my tools of interpretation _and

analysis. Thus _{my sociological understandings might} be

explained by Ernest Becker (1962).

"Man's _{answers to the problem of his}

existence are in large _measure fictional.

... embedded in a network of codified

meaning and perceptions that _are in large

part arbitrary and fictional... if _{we do not}

understand this _{we understand nothing about}

man... He must at all times defend the _utter

fragility _of his _{delicately constituted}

fiction _and deny its _{artificiality. "}

Hecker _{and others, such as Joseph Campbell}

and Peter

ftrgoN _{'0 omplain that one of the mechanisms}

we develop

for _{maintaining these fictions, is myth}

making. Myths

thus _{contribute to, and reinforce,}

meaning in our

wmistence. They _{are part of the serious business of}

life. This _{sense of} the _word 'myth' is described by

Williams (1976), _when he _{speaks of an alternative meaning}

of 'myth' 'as an account of _origins... Eas] an active

form _{of social organization'.}

Thus this _rsssarch has _{a purpose similar} to that Ernest

B*cker _{wrote as the} task _{of social scientists,}

"to _attempt to _come to _{grips with} the

fictions that _constrain human freedom, _with

the ideas, beliefs institutions that

stifle the i

selfntelligent, _-direction of the people. " responsible

Joseph Campbell _{outlined what} he _{saw as} the _modern

problems in Western societies in terms of a lack of

cohesive myths, brought about in part by the rapidity of

of the rate of change. " In the microcosm of the craft

milieu this might help explain some of the conflicting

ideologies _{all operating under} the _same label.

My background in humanistic _psychology led to the _early

decision to _seek to identify _{successful practice} in this

research. 12 Thus, attention was given to the attitudes

of those _who feel successful and those who do not _share

this _opinion, in the belief that _{attitudes can and do}

influence behaviour _and by _{extension, opportunities.}

When _{setting up the survey of practitioners I looked for}

people _{who were satisfied with} the independent _practice

they had _established. I have _also developed this _concept

of attitudes and _satisfaction by _{restructuring my}

professional _{practice courses} to include _{assertiveness}

and confidence building.

My interest _{and work in small and not-for-profit business}

management is _also long _{standing and has added to this}

research, _{particularly regarding the relevance of}

appropriate business _{attitudes and practice. For the}

most part, the _{self-employed} independent _{visual artist}

shares little allegiance with the predominant small

business _{models, primarily} because the _{visual artists} is

most often not interested in expansion of the business

beyond _a level they _{can cope with on} their _{own or} with a

little help. These _{visual artists,} however, have _much in

common with a particular, hitherto quite invisible, group

within small business in general called micro-business.

This _{micro-business refers} to _{self-employed people}

running one or two person businesses primarily with the

intent _of independence. The _{research considers} the

compatibility of such visual artists with

micro-business. In a lesser way the business management

experience has informed my analysis of state provision in

this _sector.

Thus the background I brought to this _work is, to _some

extent, _{multi-faceted,} integrating _{a variety} of

experience _and learning. In _{some senses,} it is the

background _{of an outsider which can I hope, be useful for}

generating _some insights _{of a different order} than those

of people _who have _spent their _working life _entirely in

the _{visual arts.}

3. RESEARCH METHODS

This _{research was started} formally in _early 1985. It has

consisted of reading within the literature relating to

arts management, visual arts in general and craft and

design in _particular. I attended _{visual arts meetings,}

conferences, special events, and had discussions with

makers and mediators. I have also drawn on literature in

other fields mentioned in the preceding section.

In _preparation for the _{study of successful} designer

craftspeople I drew up an initial contact list of

approximately fifty practitioners who appeared to

represent designer craftspeople who were satisfied with

the independent _{career pattern} they had _created. I then

contacted the makers, explaining the _{project and asking}

if they _would be _willing to take _part in the _research.

Thus _{some makers were able} to de-select themselves, _and I

was able to continue with a group of twenty two. These

people who had agreed to participate _{were subsequently}

interviewed _{or asked} to fill _{out a questionnaire, and to}

send additional information _{such as articles about}

themselves, _{publicity materials. Most of the twenty two}

have _{an active programme of making themselves visible}

through _{a variety of methods such as attending trade}

shows, retail sales events, _{and professional meetings, as}

well as getting media coverage. Therefore I have tracked

their _progress through these _{channels as well as keeping}

in _{personal contact with some of them since this}

aspect

of the study started in 1988.

Because _{of my previous work in sociology,}

psychology _and

communications I _{was particularly careful in my}

approaches to _{and with makers,} for _{I was concerned to}

reduce the impact _{of my preconceptions on the information}