422 Theory

(1)

PHILOSOPHICAL

FOUNDATIONS:

WHAT IS

THEORY?

Chapter Two

(2)

W

W hat is Communication?hat is Communication?

y

y Definition:Definition: ³The process through which messages,³The process through which messages,

both intentional and unintentional, create meaning´ both intentional and unintentional, create meaning´

(Metts, 2004, p. 5). (Metts, 2004, p. 5).

y

y Aspects: Aspects:



 Dialectical natureDialectical nature



 Strategic and ConsequentialStrategic and Consequential Ù

Ù Perceptual consequencesPerceptual consequences

Ù

Ù Behavioral consequencesBehavioral consequences

Ù

(3)

What happens on a

first date that will

lead people to go

on a second date?

How can a

student be

successful?

What leads one

broadcasting

agency to become

successful in a

market?

What would

make employees

in a given

organization

more productive?

(4)

W

W hat is Theory?hat is Theory?

y

y Naïve or ³lay´ theoriesNaïve or ³lay´ theories««

y

y There is no single ³correct´ definition of There is no single ³correct´ definition of

theory theory

y

y Definitions depend on assumptions andDefinitions depend on assumptions and

needs/goals of theorist needs/goals of theorist

y

y But all agree that theory if fundamentally anBut all agree that theory if fundamentally an

abstraction abstraction

Theory is not behavior but an

abstract

representation of behavior

(5)

Metaphors might help

««

Theories are a

R

Re

ed

duc

ucttiio

on

n o

of

f

details to patterns

of associations

A map

A

A fishin

fishing net

g net

Spectacles

(6)

Difference between naïve theories and

scientific theories

y

y Both lay theories and scientific theories function toBoth lay theories and scientific theories function to

organize information, describe phenomena, organize information, describe phenomena,

explain how communication works, and sometimes explain how communication works, and sometimes predict future occurrences.

predict future occurrences.

y

y However, the important difference between lay However, the important difference between lay

theories and scientific theories is that scholars theories and scientific theories is that scholars must be able to argue for the validi

must be able to argue for the validity (truth orty (truth or correctness) of their theories²they do this

correctness) of their theories²they do this empirically, statistically, and/or logically empirically, statistically, and/or logically

(7)

More Formal Definitions of Theory?

y

Abstractions of the

Abstractions

of the social world

social world

««

that

explain how, when, or why something

happens, and exist at varying levels of

generality (Miller, 2005)

y

A description of concepts and

specifications of the relationships

between or among these concepts

(Metts, 2004, p. 9)

(8)

W

W hat Theories Are Nothat Theories Are Not

y

y Theories should be distinguished from Theories should be distinguished from hypotheses,hypotheses,

typologies, taxonomies, and models. typologies, taxonomies, and models.



 HypothesisHypothesis: A single statement about the relationship: A single statement about the relationship

between two concepts between two concepts



 Typology Typology : : Thematic Thematic categories (e.g.categories (e.g., types , types of of immediacy immediacy

cues in the classroom or types of power) cues in the classroom or types of power)



 Taxonomy Taxonomy : : Categories Categories that that are are arranged arranged hierarchically hierarchically

(types of animals) (types of animals)



 MModelsodels:: usually concerned with processes; draw onusually concerned with processes; draw on

typologies, taxonomies, and theories but describe

typologies, taxonomies, and theories but describe withoutwithout predicting

predicting or or explaining. explaining. Ex.: Ex.: the the stages stages of of relationshiprelationship development and deterioration

(9)

W

W hat a theory is nothat a theory is not

y

y A hypothesis A hypothesis

y

y A model A model

y

y A taxonomy A taxonomy

y

y A paradigm A paradigm

As depth of self-disclosure increases,

relationships will grow

Compliance Gaining Strategies

REWARD APPEALS REWARD APPEALS 1 1.. IInnggrraattiiaattiioonn 2 2.. PPrroommiissee 3 3.. DDeebbtt 4 4.. EEsstteeeemm 5 5.. AAlllluurreemmeenntt PUNISHMENT APPEALS«etc. PUNISHMENT APPEALS«etc.

(10)

W

(11)

W

(12)

W

W hat is this?hat is this?

y

y The more people from groups that do notThe more people from groups that do not

like each other have contact or talk with like each other have contact or talk with each other, the more they will grow to like each other, the more they will grow to like each other.

each other.

(13)

W

W hat are the ³parts´ of a theory?hat are the ³parts´ of a theory?

M

_iller

(2005

_):

y

(1) description of phenomena,

y

(2) relationships among these

phenomena,

y

(3) an underlying ³storyli

(3) an

underlying ³storyline´ that

ne´ that

describes mechanis

describes mechanisms at

ms at work, and

work, and

y

(4) links between the abstract theory

(4) links

between the abstract theory

and observed phenomena

(14)

First²some review!

(15)

(16)

(17)

W

W hat are the ³parts´ of a theory?hat are the ³parts´ of a theory?

M

_etts

(2004

_):

y

(1) concepts

y

(2) relationships among these concepts



PPropositions ropositions OR OR Other Other statementsstatements

y y PP

ropositions

 TemporalTemporal  CorrelationalCorrelational  CausalCausal

(18)

What does a theory do? What does a theory do?

(Metts, 2004, p. 14) (Metts, 2004, p. 14)

F

Fuunnccttiioonn WWhhaat t tthhe e TThheeoorry y DDooeess

Organize Organize Describe Describe Explain Explain Predict Predict

(19)

Functions of theories

y

y To provide answers to interesting questionsTo provide answers to interesting questions

and/or solutions to important problems and/or solutions to important problems



 Theories addressTheories address empirical problemsempirical problems inin

which something about the observed world is which something about the observed world is

puzzling puzzling



 Theories addressTheories address conceptual problemsconceptual problems inin

which there are inconsistencies within a theory which there are inconsistencies within a theory

or with other theories or with other theories



 Theories addressTheories address practical problemspractical problems of daily of daily

life life

(20)

How are theories developed?

y

y DeductiveDeductive approach to theory building:approach to theory building:

Abstract theories are developed early in Abstract theories are developed early in

process, then tested with empirical process, then tested with empirical observations

observations

y

y InductiveInductive approach to theory building:approach to theory building:

Theoretical abstractio

Theoretical abstractions are ns are grounded ongrounded on extensive empirical

(21)

Actual practice Actual practice Inductive Inductive Deductive Deductive Inductive Inductive Deductive Deductive

(22)

How can I tell if

a theory is good?

y

y Utility Utility

y

y scientific &scientific &

practical practical

y

y ScopeScope



 BreadthBreadth ((range of range of

applicability) applicability)   Parsimony Parsimony y y HeurismHeurism y y Falsifiability Falsifiability y

y Accuracy Accuracy (entails(entails

falsifiability) falsifiability)

y

y Consistency Consistency

(internal and external) (internal and external)

y

y ScopeScope

y

y SimpleSimple ((PParsimony)arsimony)

y

y FruitfulFruitful (Heurism)(Heurism)

M

(23)

Paradigms & Theories

y

yK K

uhn on

PP

aradigms

y

y PP

aradigms > Theories

y

The Paradox of Paradigms

The

Paradox of Paradigms

y

(24)

P

Paradigm shift as ³Revolution´aradigm shift as ³Revolution´

Normal

Science

Anomalies

Crisis

´Revolutionµ

(25)

P

Paradigms & Theoriesaradigms & Theories

P

Paradigmaradigm PParadigmaradigm PParadigmaradigm

Theory Theory Type Type Theory Theory Type Type Theory Theory Type Type T

(26)

Metatheoretical Commitments

y

M

etatheory

: ³theory about theory´ --

: ³theory about theory´

--philosop

philosophical

hical commitments

commitments

y

Metatheoretical commitments define

different approaches to theory

development and research practices

y

Three important aspects of metatheory

are

are ontology

ontology

,, epistemology

epistemology

, and

axiology

(27)

Ontology: The Nature of the Social

W W

orld

y

y Realist stanceRealist stance:: The social world is seen asThe social world is seen as

consisting of real entities, independent of an consisting of real entities, independent of an individual¶s perception

individual¶s perception

y

y Nominalist stanceNominalist stance:: The social world consistsThe social world consists

of names and labels we use to

of names and labels we use to structurestructure reality

reality

y

y Social constructionist stanceSocial constructionist stance:: W W e create thee create the

social world through symbols and interaction social world through symbols and interaction but it then becomes a ³reality´ constraining but it then becomes a ³reality´ constraining

our behavior our behavior

(28)

These positions are on a continuum

R

Reeaalliisstt SSoocciiaall NNoommiinnaalliisstt

Constructionist Constructionist



(29)

Epistem

ology: The creation

and growth

of knowledge

(Table 2.1, p. 29)(Table 2.1, p. 29)

y

y Objectivist stanceObjectivist stance: Causal explanations of the: Causal explanations of the

social world are developed through separation of social world are developed through separation of knower and known and use of the scientific

knower and known and use of the scientific method (observatio

method (observation, search n, search for regularities infor regularities in behav

behavior; ior; genergeneralizabalizablele knowleknowledge)dge)

y

y Subjectivist stanceSubjectivist stance: Emergent and local: Emergent and local

understandings of the social world are developed understandings of the social world are developed through situated knowledge and reports of

through situated knowledge and reports of

cultural insiders²researcher often becomes part cultural insiders²researcher often becomes part of the group

of the group

y

(30)

P

Paradigms: Burrell & Morgan¶s View aradigms: Burrell & Morgan¶s View

y

y Burrell and Morgan outline sociologicalBurrell and Morgan outline sociological

theories, many of which also

theories, many of which also appear inappear in

communication research, on two continua. communication research, on two continua.

y

y These are continuaThese are continua, rather than simple, rather than simple

categories (tho

categories (though they do ugh they do inform Miller¶sinform Miller¶s discussion).

discussion).

y

y The two are as follows:The two are as follows:



 1) O1) Ontology/Epistemolontology/Epistemology (x-axis)gy (x-axis)



(31)

Th

e Subjective-Objective Dimension

((Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

S

Suubbjjeeccttiivvee OObbjjeeccttiivvee

Ontology/

Epistemology

(32)

Th

e Subjective-Objective Dimension

N

Noommiinnaalliissmm ontologyontology RReeaalliissmm

Anti-positivism

Anti-positivism epistemologyepistemology PPositivismositivism

Ideographic

Ideographic methodologymethodology NNomotheticomothetic

T The subjectivisthe subjectivist approach to approach to social science social science T The objectivisthe objectivist approach to approach to social science social science

((Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3) V

(33)

Scientific key words

y

y CauseCauseEffect, influence, affecEffect, influence, affect, lead t, lead toto

y

y Factors, variablesFactors, variables

y y PredictPredict y y GeneralizableGeneralizable y y Analytic/reductionistic Analytic/reductionistic y

(34)

Humanistic key words

y

y ContextualContextual

y

y InterpretiveInterpretive

y

y Social constructionSocial construction

y

y HolisticHolistic

y

y SubjectiveSubjective

y

(35)

Axiology: The role of values in theory

development

y

Most theorists now reject the idea tha

Most theoris

ts now reject the idea thatt

values can be

values can be totally eliminated from

totally eliminated from

the research process

y

Three positions are still evident:



 values values only ponly play a lay a rolrole in pare in partsts of thof thee

research process research process



 values values permpermeateeate the rthe researesearch prch processocess



(36)

Rephrased as questions:

y

Can research be value-free?

y

Should research be value-free?

y

(37)

Th

e Social C

_h_h

ange/Status Quo Dimension

((Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)Source: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 3)

Radical Social Change Radical Social Change

Regulation/Status Quo/Observation Regulation/Status Quo/Observation

Axiology

(38)

Critical key words

y

y PowerPower ((struggles, etc.)struggles, etc.)

y

y Production and reproduction of socialProduction and reproduction of social

structures

structures ((like sexism, racism,like sexism, racism, classism)

classism)

y

y Empowerment, Empowerment, emancipation,emancipation,

resistance resistance

y

y Social relationsSocial relations

y

y Ideology, hegemony Ideology, hegemony

y

y Social changeSocial change

y

y NOTE:NOTE: MMay beay be qqualitative or ualitative or

q

(39)

A very important note:

A very important note: C C ritical theoryritical theory, at, at

least in communication, is not a question of least in communication, is not a question of method or ontological/epistemological

method or ontological/epistemological

assumptions, but of the purpose of research: assumptions, but of the purpose of research:

y

y Study 1: Does exposure to pornography lead men toStudy 1: Does exposure to pornography lead men to

see women in more objectified terms? see women in more objectified terms?

y

y Study Study 22:: In what ways does the movie,In what ways does the movie, ThThelma and elma and

Louise

Louise provide new (and empowering) narratives forprovide new (and empowering) narratives for women¶s relationships?

(40)

Th

ree (socially constructed) paradigmsnin

communication!

((Source: Burrell andSource: Burrell and Morgan, 1979: 22) Morgan, 1979: 22)

SUBJEC

SUBJECTTIIVVEE OBJECOBJECTTIIVVEE

REGULA

REGULATTIOIONN

RADICAL

RADICAL CHACHANNGEGE

CRI

CRITTICAL:ICAL:

Social change Social change

SCIE

SCIENTNTIFIC:IFIC:

P

Predict/redict/ Control Control HUMA

HUMANNISISTTIC:IC: Observe/

Observe/ Interpret Interpret

(41)

Building Communication Theory

Chapter 3

(42)

Two debates in

³Communicati

on´

y

y 1977: Laws, Rules Systems1977: Laws, Rules Systems

y

y 1983: Scientific, Humanistic, Critical1983: Scientific, Humanistic, Critical

y

y Today¶s debates?Today¶s debates?

y

y 1989:1989: R Ret et hhinking Communicationinking Communication

y

y W W hat would you find at a communicationhat would you find at a communication

conference today? conference today?

y

y W W hat do you find in the School of hat do you find in the School of

Communication at Illinois State Communication at Illinois State University?