CHAPTER 2 Updated for Sem 20172018

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NATURE

CONSERVATION

BFC 10202

Learn about natural environment : Living environment

Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Chapter 2 :

Biodiversity

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INTRODUCTION

Learn about natural environment : Living environment

– To learn about living components of planet earth

I. Biodiversity – definition, levels, examples II. To learn about some interactions, values III. Issues, threats and how to overcome

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¤ Created 4-6bill years ago – no living thing

¤ The big bang – life

¤ Microbes  plants  animals + man (evolutionary approach)

¤ Biosphere – atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere

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The Earth’s Life-Support System

Has Four Major Components

EARTH Atmosphere Troposphere (where weather happens) Stratosphere (contain ozone layer) Hydrosphere Water

Geosphere Crust, mantel core

Biosphere Everywhere that living organisms occur

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Fig. 3-2, p. 56

Natural Capital: General

structure of the Earth

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Fig. 3-2, p. 56 Soil Biosphere (living organisms) Atmosphere Rock Crust Mantle Geosphere

(crust, mantle, core) Mantle

Core _Atmosphere (air)

Hydrosphere (water)

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Fig. 3-3a, p. 56

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¤ What are they? Characteristics?

¤ How are they important to human life and welfare?

a. Soil – rocks b. Water

c. Air

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¤ All kinds of rocks

¤ Weathering becomes soil

¤ Medium for plant growth

¤ Support living and non-living things, natural and man-made things

¤ Provide areas for construction of buildings

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¤ Very important for life processes

¤ Body of living things comprise mainly of water eg. human >70% water

¤ >70% of planet earth covered with water

¤ Determine climate (eg. rainfall/humidity)

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¤ Oxygen needed for breathing process

¤ Carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, carbohydrates

¤ Nitrogen – a composition of protein

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¤ Characteristics and examples ¤ Importance a. Monera b. Protista c. Fungi d. Plants e. Animals f. Man

I. LIVING COMPONENTS

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Definition : CBD 1991

– The variability among living organisms from all

sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD, 1992).

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i.Utilitarian values : food, medicines, material structure

i.Ecological service value : pollinators, decomposers, watershed, replenishing oxygen, icon of tourism

i.Aesthetic value: green color to emotional development, beauty

i.Moral value: every living things has the right to live, uniqueness

i.Cultural,religous value: elephant , cow to Hinduism

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– Levels : genetic, species, ecosystems – Groups of organisms

– Distribution, Endemism

– Interactions : Ecological stability – Issues and threats

– What do we do?

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¤ Variation at genetic level due to different arrangement of chromosome

¤ Occur naturally or altered by man

¤ Eg. Brassica oleracea (cabbage) genetically modified by genetic engineering – cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, brussel sprout

¤ White cabbage, purple cabbage

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GENETIC DIVERSITY: ALTERED BY HUMAN

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¤ Chromosome: Different number & arrangement

¤ About 1.8mill species recorded/named

¤ Estimated 100mill – working figure 10mill

¤ Not discovered are mainly small sized organisms (microbes) eg.: bacteria, viruses, algae

¤ Difficult to access habitats eg. deep ocean, canopy

Level 2: SPECIES DIVERSITY

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SPIDERS FROGS

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Species diversity

SPECIES DIVERSITY

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¤ More diverse eg. Tropical vs. arboreal forest

¤ Involve diversity in interactions

¤ More diversity, more interactions – more stable

¤ In Malaysia : forest, mangrove, mountain

¤ Types of ecosystems – tropical, temperate, polar

¤ Vegetation determine diversity determine diversity of animals

¤ Vegetation – autotrophic depends on solar radiation for photosynthesis

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Ecosystem diversity

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

Tropical Rainforest Savannah Temperate Rainforest

Desert Taiga Tundra

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¤ Tropics higher diversity than temperate ¤ Lowland higher diversity than highlands

¤ Tropical rainforest 7% global land mass harbour >50% biodiversity

¤ Marine ecosystems in tropic higher primary productivity higher diversity

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– Pic to show tropical rainforest

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¤ Certain species of living things only found in restricted geographical areas – endemics

¤ Eg. Orang utan (Borneo and Sumatra) ¤ Probosis monkey (Borneo)

¤ Zebra (Africa); Panda (China) ¤ Kangaroo (Australia)

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Orang utan

Pongo pygmaeus

Probosis monkey

Larvatus nasalis

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6 GROUPS OF LIVING THINGS

Monera

• Prokaryote – bacteria, viruses

Protista

• Eukaryote – one celled, protozoa, algae

Fungi

• Autotrophic – make own food, no chlorophyll; enzymes digest food (decomposing organic matter), mushroom

Plantae

• Autotrophic – mostly + chlorophyll

Animalia

• heterotrophic

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¤ Prokaryotic – ancient/early cell (nucleus unbounded)

¤ No apparent nucleus (just nucleoid), no nuclear membrane

¤ Organelles not bound by membranes (eg: mitochondria, chloroplast)

¤ Bacteria, virus

• Eg : Esterichia coli – dysentery

Salmonella – food poisoning

• Eg: HIV - AIDS

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¤ Cell with no nuclear membrane

¤ Nucleoplasma dispersed all over cell in cytoplasma

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¤ Eurokaryotic, one celled organisms

¤ Nucleus bound by membrane

¤ Organelle bound by membrane

¤ Able to do all life functions (eat, digest, breathe, reproduce, moves)

¤ Egs :

• Plant-like (Volvox),

• Animal-like (Paramecium) • In between (Euglena)

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Nucleus bound by a membrane

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Volvox

Various kinds of Eukaryotes

Paramesium

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Importance of Protista

Carry diseases

Trypanosoma –

sleeping sickness – vector tzetze flies,

Africa Entamoeba histolytica – hemoraging dysentery Plasmodium – malaria, vector mosquitoes (Anophelese)

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¤ Plant-like (not mobile/attached; autotrophic) ¤ No chlorophyl, enzymes digest food

¤ Food : decomposing organic materials eg. Rotting wood

¤ Body parts : root-like (mycorrhiza), trunk or stem-like (hypha), fruit body containing spores ¤ Some poisonous

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Importance of Fungi

Decomposers in various ecosystems Food – button mushroom, oyster mushroom Biotechnology – yeast in fermentation Medicines – Penicillium (medicine for infections, found on rotting bread/mold)

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4. Plantae (Plants)

PLANT Lower plants (reproduction: spores) Non-vascular – mosses (Bryophyta) Vascular – ferns (Pteridophyta) Higher plants (reproduction: seeds) Naked seeds (Gymnospermae) Flower to cover seeds (Angiospermae)

One seed body (Monocotyledon)

Two seed body (Dicotyledon)

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¤ Green with chlorophyll

¤ Photosynthesis to make food and produce

¤ Oxygen as waste product

¤ With leaves, flower, roots, stem or the likes

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¤ Mosses, liverworts, horn mosses

¤ 24,000sp (15,000 mosses; 9,000 liverworts and 100 horn mosses)

¤ No leaves, stem, flower, fruit and roots

¤ Rhizoid – root-like (to grasp surface)

¤ Water : male spore  female spore

¤ Important as resource for small organisms eg. tiny beetles, fish and in preventing erosion, cover plant, store/provide water to ecosystem

¤ Interacts with other organisms

Lower plants: Bryophyta

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Liverworts

Elk Mosses Mosses

Horn Mosses

Lower plants: Mosses –

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¤ Vascular lower plants

¤ 12,000sp (67% tropical)

¤ Ancient – 375-400 million years ago

¤ Non-flowering, with spore

¤ Food, medicinal values

¤ Handicraft

¤ Succession – ecological in betweens

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¤ Fruiting plants

¤ Naked seed – Gymnospermae

¤ Covered seed – Angiospermae (fruits/flowers)

¤ Mostly terrestrial

¤ Tolerance to dryness

¤ Reproduction using specific organs

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A unique plant with huge potential as

tourism product

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¤ Cycads – ancient plants (Jurassic, Dinosaur period) palm-like (at present as

ornamentals)

¤ Ginko – ancient plant eg. Ginko biloba (strengthen memory)

¤ Gnetophytum – retain water in stem (liana) – eg Gnetum

¤ Cornifer – Pinus (Casuarina – ru)

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Ginkgo Biloba

Various Kinds of Gymnospermae

Casuarina (Rhu)

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¤ Flower protect seed

¤ Monocotyledon and dicotyledon

¤ Important as economic resources

¤ Food, construction materials, paper, medicines

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bunga tahi ayam

Flowers

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¤ Egs : Coconut tree, oil palm

¤ One cotyl (germinating body) in seed

¤ Leaves : parallel vein

¤ Vascular bundles : scattered

¤ Root : fibrous

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¤ Eg : Durian tree, long beans, peanuts

¤ Two cotyls (germinating bodies) in a seed

¤ Leaves : complex venation

¤ Vascular bundles : arranged

¤ Root : with main root system

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¤ Heterotrophic – does not make own food,

consume various kinds of food (no chlorophyll)

¤ Mobile (with

appendage – legs, wings)

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¤ One celled animals (mono-celled)

¤ Able to perform all live activities eg. move, feed, reproduce, react, breathe, excrete etc.

¤ Egs : Euglena, Paramecium

¤ Importance : caused diseases

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¤ Sponges are multi-celled

¤ Single cell may be able to survive but tend to aggregate

¤ Mainly marine animals

¤ Importance – commercial and medical

¤ Egs. Glass sponges, bath sponges

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¤ Tissue – cells form layers and have specific function

¤ Two layers – epidermis and

gastrodermis from two germs layers (ectoderma and endoderma)

-diploblastic

¤ Eg : Hydra, Corals, Sea anemone

¤ Symmetry - Radial

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hydra, jelly fish, anemone

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Examples: Cnidaria / Coelentara

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¤ Flat worms

¤ Triploblastic – 3 layers of tissue – epidermis, muscles, gut layers (from 3 germ layers –

ectodermis, mesodermis and endodermis)

¤ Organs – mouth, gut, reproductive organs

¤ Acoelemate – no coelom

¤ Some movement; Symmetry: bilateral

¤ Importance: caused diseases eg. tape worms

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¤ Triploblastic, with organs

¤ Cylindrical with strong muscles

¤ Pseudocoelomate

¤ Eg. Round worms, Filaria, Hook worm

¤ Symmetry: bilateral

¤ Movement limited - endoparasite

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¤ Triploblastic, developed organs

¤ Snails, shell-fishes (oyster, mussels, octopus and squids)

¤ True coelom

¤ Movement more active – directional

¤ Importance – food, pearls, source of calsium carbonate

¤ Used in research (vision)

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snails, bivalves, squid

(From Brum & McKane 1989)

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Triploblastic, true coelomate,

directional movement with some

forms of organs for movement

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Egs. Earthworms, polycheates,

leeches

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Decomposers, medical

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Earthworm & polycheates (bristle worms)

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¤ Appendage for movement clearly segmented, invade land

¤ Symmetry : bilateral

¤ Egs : insects, millipedes, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, prawns, crabs

¤ Importance : many (food,

pollinators, decomposers, vectors, carriers of pathogenic microbes)

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Spiders and centipedes

(From : Brum & McKane 1989)

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Most diverse animal, beetles – 400,000 spp?

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Insects

(From Brum & McKane 1989)

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¤ Another line of evolution – formation of mouth, cleavage

¤ Animals with pentamerous radial arms

¤ Symmetry : bilateral and radial (matures forms)

¤ Starfishes, sea urchin, sea ferns, sand dollars

¤ Mainly marine

¤ Uses : food (sea urchin, sea cucumber), medicine (sea cucumber/gamat), decorations

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Starfishes, Sea Urchin

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¤ Higher animals with backbones (notochord)

¤ 5 Classes – Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia

¤ Importance – food, tourism,

transportation, furs and feathers, medical, hides, fat sources , dairy products

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¤ Fish with cartilage bones (sharks, rays) and real bones (mackerels, sole, puffer fish, tuna)

¤ Threats – over harvesting, unsustainable methods, coral fish, whales

¤ Fresh water fish 9,000spp

¤ Marine fish 13,000spp

¤ Total fish species 22,000

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¤ Frogs and toads – 4,500spp

¤ Salamanders - not found in Malaysia

¤ Cecilian – rare

¤ Indicators – threats, global warming caused extinction

¤ Evolutionary importance – in between fish and reptiles

Class 2: Amphibia

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AMPHIBIA

SESILIA

FROG/ KATAK

TOAD/KODOK

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¤ Land animals - Shelled eggs

¤ Coarse skins – dehydration

¤ Importance – skin industry, food, medical (vaccines)

¤ Threats – over consumption eg. turtles eggs, snake skin

Class 3: Reptilia

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KOMODO DRAGON LEATHERBACK TURTLE ANACONDA

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¤ Flying and non-flying (wings)

¤ Domesticated – food (chicken, ducks, ostrich)

¤ Bird watching

¤ Seed dispersers

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OSTRICH STELLER’S SEA EAGLE

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Birds – evolved from reptiles, shows evolutionary advancement –ability to fly

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Land and air and aquatic

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Fur as protection

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No eggs stage (except

monotremes)

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Placentals and milk feeding

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Mammals: 1. as source of protein 2. as tourism attraction

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¤ When two or more organisms interact with one another resulting in some effects.

¤ Eg: cow eats grass (herbivory); owl eat rats – predation

¤ Eg: worms in human stomach feeding on digested food - parasitism

¤ Eg: ants feed on honey produced by aphids, ants protect aphids - mutualism

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¤

+ + : Mutualism

¤

- 0 : Amensalism

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+ - : Parasitism, Predation, Herbivory

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+ 0: Epiphytic

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two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individual benefits from the activity of the other

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¤ Amensalism is an interaction

where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by itself

¤ Algal blooms can lead to the death of many species of fish and other animals but the algae doesn’t benefit the death of

those individuals

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¤ Parasitism is non-mutual relationship between species, where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host

¤ In predation, one organism kills and consumes another (prey). ¤ Herbivory is the consumption of plant material by animals

Parasitism Predation Herbivory

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¤ Epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, and

sometimes from debris accumulating around it.

¤ Commensalism, is a class of relationships between two organisms where one organism benefits from the other without affecting it.

Epiphytic Commensalism

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¤ Interdependency – low to high degree

¤ Increase & decrease of organism populations

¤ Leads to ecological balance

¤ More interactions more stable (ecosystems) eg. Tropics: high biodiversity more interactions

-ecosystems more stable

¤ Disturbance to one components disturb the balance

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1. Utilitarian values : food, medicines, structural materials

2. Intrinsic/ecological /services values : pollinators, decomposers (insects), watershed, replenishing oxygen, tourism

3. Aesthetical values : beauty, green colour to emotional development

4. Moral values : right to live, uniqueness

5. Cultural, religious values : Elephant, Cow to Hinduism,

6. Optional values – for future uses eg. Wildlife in tourism

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Uses of

biodiversity

Fruits and

vegetables

IMR IMR

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Staple Foods

Tapioca & rice :

carbohydrates

IMR

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Food :

Protein

Cattle, fish

and fowl

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Trees provide

water and

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Simply

beautiful

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1.

We do not know what we have –

poor documentation – how it

affects – implication (Not enough

surveys)

Not enough basic studies – focus on applied studies

No supporting infra – eg bioinformatics

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2. We do not know much about

traditional uses – poor

documentation – how it affects

Traditional uses of plants in healthcare not enough

documentation

Loss of TK – Takako & Maryati 2004

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3. Rich biodiversity poor

technology – implication

Slow advance in new technologies

Still depend on old technologies

Case of Bitangor : Sarawak has Bintangor (has potential to cure HIV) but need technology from America to help process

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4. Overharvesting

Using unsustainable methods of harvesting

Killing progenies, wasteful

Eg fish bombing, poisoning, clear cutting

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5. IPR, invasive species, PAs

IPR and ABS – not clear cut

Took too long time for patenting

Invasive species

Protected Areas not many and not networked

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Mikania micrantha – weed suffocating plants

especially

cover crop – legumes (kekacang)

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IMR

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 Conversion of land use from forest to agricultural, settlements (new townships etc), basic facilities (schools, offices etc),

 Pollution(air, soil, freshwater and marine environment form agrochemicals pollution, siltation, oil spills)

 Erosion of traditional knowledge (some plant wild varieties are not looked after and now extinct because traditional knowledge on use of these varieties was not practiced)

¤ Unsustainable harvesting of natural resources (such as using fine meshed nets when catching fishes), fish bombing and poisoning

¤ Climatic change and global warming (biodiversity has specific life regime, over which will cause death)

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`

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Conversion of land use Pollution

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Poor documentation of traditional

knowledge : eg. Herbal uses

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¤

Enhance discovery of biodiversity

¤

Enhance discovery of uses of biodiversity

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Document traditional knowledge

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Enhance knowledge based industry

(education/tourism/publication/multimedia)

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Enhance conservation ethics

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The living component of planet earth

BIODIVERSITY

 Define biodiversity

 Go through the major groupings

 Interactions

 Values

 Threats

 How to overcome the threat

WHAT HAVE WE LEARNT IN

CHAPTER 2?

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– Thank you

– Terima kasih