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M a te ria lis m and p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e
A t h e s i s b y W illiam D onald Ram say, B .A ., f o r th e d e g re e o f Fli.D i n p h ilo so p h y , su b m itte d t o th e U n iv e rs ity of W arw ick. I t h as b e e n w r itte n as a r e s u l t of r e s e a r c h c o n d u c te d b y th e a u th o r in th e U n iv e r s ity of W arwick D ep artm en t of P h ilo so p h y , and h as b e en co m pleted f o r
s u b m issio n t o th e U n iv e r s ity in th e m onth of M arch 1985«
Contents
A cknow ledgem ents v i j
A b b re v ia tio n s v i i i
Summary ix
C h ap te r 1 . A d e f i n i t i o n of m a te ria lis m . 1
1 . Summary of C h a p te r. l
2 . M a te ria lis m , p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e and th e p ro b le m
of d e fin in g m a te r ia lis m . 2
3 . M a te ria lis m and p h y s ic s . 6
4 . The u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is . 8 5 . The u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is r e je c te d . 12 6 . T ow ards an a l t e r n a t i v e d e f in iti o n : Sm art and
A rm strong re c o n s id e re d . 18
7 . A d e f i n i t i o n o f m a te ria lis m . 19
8 . A p r e lim in a r y a p p r a is a l. 29
C h ap ter 2 . The c h a lle n g e of m a te ria lis m . 35
1 . Summary of C h a p te r. 35
2 . The problem o f q u a lia . 36
3 . Q u a lia and th e c a u s a l lo g ic and f a c t s of
sen se p e rc e p tio n . AO
4 . M a te ria lis m and s e n s a tio n s . 42
5 . S e n s a tio n s a s n o n -p h y s ic a l o b je c ts . 44
6 . The lo c a tio n o b je c tio n . 46
7 . O th er p roblem s ab o u t s e n s a tio n s . 50
8 . O th er m e n ta l phenom ena. 52
9 . I n t e n t ! o n a l i t y and i n t e n s i o n a l i t y 56
1 0 . C o n sc io u sn e ss. 6l
1 1 . The d e fe n c e o f m a te ria lis m - A n a ly tic a l an d '
R e v is io n a ry a p p ro a c h e s. 64
Page
iii Tage
C h ap ter 3 . The A n a ly tic a l A pproach, a c q u a in ta n c e and
th e c h ic k e n se x e r o b je c tio n . 67
1 . Summary of C h a p te r. 67
2 . W hat i s th e A n a ly tic a l A pproach t o th e d e fe n ce
o f m a te ria lis m ? 68
3 . P e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e — th e A c q u ain tan c e A n a ly s is . 73 4 . The r o le of b e l i e f s in th e A c q u a in ta n c e A n a ly s is . 78 5 . The A c q u ain tan c e A n a ly s is , com monsense and th e
r e f u t a t i o n of m a te ria lis m . 81
6 . The c h ick en s e x e r o b je c tio n . 84
C h ap ter 4 . A r e f u t a t i o n of th e A n a ly tic a l A pproach. 87
1 . Sunsnary of C h a p te r. 87
2 . The B e lie f A n a ly s is of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e . 88 3 . The ad v a n ta g e s of th e B e lie f A n a ly s is f o r th e
m a t e r i a l i s t . 92
4 . Does th e B e lie f A n a ly s is su cceed ? - p re lim in a ry
a p p r a is a l. 96
5 . The B e lie f A n a ly s is and CSO. 100
6 . The A d v e rb ia l A n a ly s is and th e d e fe n c e of
m a te ria lis m . 103
7 . The A d v e rb ia l A n a ly s is and CSO. 107
8 . O th er problem s a b o u t th e A d v e rb ia l A n a ly s is . 1 16
9 . The A n a ly tic a l A pproach m ust be r e j e c t e d . 118
C h ap ter 5 . The R e v is io n a ry A pproach: an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of E lim in a tiv e M a te ria lis m . H 9
1 . Suninary of C h a p te r. H 9
2 . E lim in a tiv e M a te ria lis m — th e R o v is io n a ry A pproach
to d e fe n d in g m a te ria lis m . 120
4 . EM anil th e r e p u d ia tio n of m e n ta l phenom ena. 123 5 . The r o le o f c a u sa l r o l e s in s e n s a tio n c o n c e p ts . 128
6 . EM and th e S eco n d ary Q u a litie s . 132
7 . The R c v is io n a ry A pproach need h e no m ore r a d i c a l
th a n th e A n a ly tic a l. 135
C h ap ter 6 . EM, th e G iven and in d u b ita b le b e l i e f s . 137
1 . Summary o f C h ap ter 137
2 . EM and th e d o c trin e o f th e G iven - in tr o d u c tio n . 138 3 . The G iv en n e ss of P e rc e p tu a l A c q u ain tan c e and
c r i t i c i s m o f EM. 139
4 . The G iv en n e ss of P e rc e p tu a l B e lie f s . 144 5. O ther c o n s tr u a ls of i n d u b i t a b i l i t y r e j e c t e d . 148 6 . I n d u b i t a b i l i t y as lo g ic a l im m u nity from d o u b t. 152 7 . T ra n s c e n d e n ta l argum ents a s a b a s is f o r GPB. 156 8 . S a t i s f a c t i o n of GPB — f u r th e r c o n s id e r a tio n . 159 9 . Type and to k e n i n d u b i t a b i l i t y . 162
C h ap ter 7 . A r e f u t a t i o n of th e G iv en n ess of P e rc e p tu a l
A c q u a in ta n c e . 165
1 . Summary o f C h a p te r. 165
2 . GPA and th e a tte m p t t o x’en d er p e rc e p tu a l b e l i e f s
l o g i c a l l y immune fro m d o u b t. 166
3 . An arg u m en t c o n n e c tin g GPA and GPB. 168
4 . C ritic is m s c o n s id e re d . 172
5 . GPA p ro v id e s no b a s is f o r GPB. 175
6 . A w areness o f c o n te n t w ith o u t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s
im p o s s ib le . 177
7 . I m p lic a tio n s of th e r e f u t a t i o n of GPA. 181
C h ap ter 8 . A r e f u t a t i o n of th o t h e s i s o f in h e r e n tly 186 in d u b ita b le b e l i e f s .
1 . Summary o f C hapter 1®6
iv
O m In h e r e n t i n d u h i t a h i l i t y and th e c o n d itio n s
g o v e rn in g c o n c e p ts . 187
3 . B a ie r on th e lo g ic of f i r s t p e rso n s e n s a tio n
r e p o r t s . 188
4 . The c o n d itio n s g o v ern in g a co n cep t a re n o t
n e c e s s a r ily s a t i s f i e d . 191
5. In h e r e n t i n d u h i t a b i l i t y p re c lu d e s know ledge
of f a c t . 19^
6 . The r e f u t a t i o n of in h e re n t in d u h ita h ility , and
our e x is tin g co n c e p t of p a in . 197
C h ap ter 9 . Two tr a n s c e n d e n ta l argum ents opp osing EM. 200
1 . Summary o f C h ap ter 200
O — • T ra n scen d en ta l argum ent and th e id e n tific a tio n
of in d u b ita b le b e l i e f s . 201
3 . The P o s s e s s io n o f Knowledge P ro o f. 202
4 . Our su c c e ss in d e a lin g w ith th e w o rld . 209 5 . E v o lu tio n a ry s u r v iv a l, th e su c c e ss of o rd in a ry
la n g u a g e , and EM. 210
6 . The f a i l u r e of th e argum ents c o n s id e re d . 214
C h ap ter 1 0 . Knowledge o f lan g u ag e and know ledge of f a c t - tlie o s te n s iv e t i e c o n c e p tio n of th e m eaning of
d e s c r ip tiv e te rm s . 216
1 . Summary of C h a p te r. 216
2 . The o s te n s iv e t i e c o n c e p tio n of th e m eaning of d e s c r ip tiv e te rm s os a b a s is f o r tr a n s c e n d e n ta l
argum ent a g a in s t EM. 217
3 . The r e j e c t i o n o f backgroun d assu m p tio n s i t s e l f
r e j e c t e d . 223
4 . O th er c r i t i c i s m s of th e arg u m en t. 226
C h ap te r 1 1 . A m a t e r i a l i s t ac co u n t of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e
and i t s c o n te n t. 234
1 . Summary of C h a p te r. 234
2 . P e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e r e c o n s id e r e d . 235 3 . A K a n tia n v iew of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e , and
o b je c tio n s to i t . 239
4 . The K a n tia n view and CSO. 246
5 . The aw aren e ss of o b je c ts a t a d is ta n c e . 250 6 . D isp o sin g o f th e lo c a tio n o b je c tio n . 254 7 . D oubts c o n c e rn in g th e phenom ena EM s u b s titu te s
f o r q u a lia . 258
8 . The m a t e r i a l i s t c a se co m p lete d . 262 9 . A co m parison w ith th e view s of P.M . C h u rch ian d . 263
A c o n c lu d in g re v ie w of th e arg u m en t. 267
N o te s . 273
vi
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vii
A cknow ledgem ents
viii
A b b re v ia tio n s
Below a re l i s t e d th e a b b re v ia tio n s u sed . B rie f e x p la n a tio n s of t h e i r m eanings a re g iv e n , to g e th e r w ith th e lo c a tio n s a t w hich th e s e a re f u r t h e r e x p la in e d .
A l, A2, A3, AAs p r o p o s itio n s c o n s titu tin g th e A cq u ain tan ce A n a ly s is of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e (pp 8 1 -8 2 ).
CSO; The c h ick en se x e r o b je c tio n (C h .3, S e c .6 ).
D1 s P ro v is io n a l d e f i n i t i o n of m a te ria lis m o ffe re d in O h ajiter 1 ( p .2 3 ) .
DM: D e fin itio n of m a te ria lis m ad o p ted in C hapter 1 f o r f u tu r e use ( p .2 9 ) .
EM: E lim in a tiv e M a te ria lis m (C h .5 ).
GPA: The G iv enness of P e rc e p tu a l A cq u ain tan ce (p .1 3 9 ).
GPB: The G iv en n ess of P e rc e p tu a l B e lie f s (p p l4 5 ; 1 5 6 ).
OC: The o s te n s iv e t i e c o n c e p tio n of th e m eaning of d e s c r ip tiv e term s (C h .1 0 , S e c s . 2 , 3 f 4 ) .
OCP: The 'O s te n s iv e C o n ce p tio n ' P ro o f (C h.10, S ecs. 2 , 3 , M •
PKP: The P o s s e s s io n of Knowledge P ro o f (C h .9, S e c .3 ) .
SEM: S tro n g E lim in a tiv e M a te ria lism (p .1 2 5 ).
M a te ria lis m and p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e
Summary
Tlie p r e s e n t work i s a d e fe n c e of s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m . I t b e g in s by a rg u in g in th e fa c e of re c e iv e d c r i t i c i s m , th a t i t does ap p ear p o s s ib le to d e fin e th e th e o ry su ch t h a t i t m e rits s e r io u s a t t e n tio n . The m ain o b s ta c le fo e th e th e o ry i s th e n i d e n t i f i e d a s th e f a c t th a t our p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e s u g g e s ts t h a t th e re a re c o n s titu e n ts in th e w o rld t h a t i t ca n n o t a llo w - in p a r t i c u l a r , th e u n a n a ly sa b le , in d e fin a b le q u a lia t h a t c h a r a c te r is e our e x p e rie n c e of S eco n d ary Q u a litie s and s e n s a tio n s , an d, also^ s e n s a tio n s lo c a te d w here th e r e i s no c o rre s p o n d in g p h y s ic a l phenom enon. Two m ain ap p ro ach es t o th e problem s th e s e ite m s p ose a re i d e n t i f i e d . The f i r s t i s th e A n a ly tic a l A p proach, w hich c la im s t h a t e x is tin g c o n c e p ts r e l a t i n g to p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e may be a n a ly s e d so ns to a v o id c o n f lic ts w ith m u to i'ia lism . Such a n a ly s e s f a i l , how ever - n o ta b ly b ecau se th e y c a n n o t d e a l s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w ith th e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een o rd in a ry c o n sc io u s p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e s and u n u su a l, and a rg u a b ly u n c o n sc io u s, j> e rc ep tu a l e p is o d e s , so fa v o u rin g th e second a p p ro a c h , th a t of E lim in a tiv e M a te ria lis m . An a tte m p t i s m ade, f i r s t , to p re s e n t a c o h e re n t fo rm u la tio n o f t h i s d e fe n c e i n th e l i g h t of r e c e n t d is c u s s io n , and a tte n t i o n th e n fo c u s s e s on i t s c e n tr a l te n e t , t h a t we may r e v is e our b e l i e f s ab o u t th e c o n te n t of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e to av o id c o n f l i c t w ith m a te r ia lis m . The m ain re a s o n f o r o p p o sin g th e l a t t e r view i s th e id e a t h a t th e b e l i e f s co n cern e d a re in d u b ita b le , b u t th e n r e p e a te d a tte m p ts t o v in d ic a te t h e i r in d u b i t a b i l i t y , b a se d
on a s u f f i c i e n t l y s tro n g u n d e rs ta n d in g of t h i s n o tio n , a re fo u n d
h e re to f a i l . T h is e n a b le s a K a n tia n a c c o u n t of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e , f i n a l l y , t o be p re s e n te d t h a t i s n o t o n ly c o m p a tib le w ith m a te r ia lis m , b u t a ls o r e t a i n s p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e a s a d i s t i n c t l y c o n sc io u s
CHAPTER 1
A D e fin itio n of M a te ria lis m
1 . Summary of C h ap ter
At th e o u ts e t i t i s n o te d t h a t th e d efen ce of m a te ria lis m h a s te n d e d to fo c u s on w h eth er th e th e o ry can come to te rra s w ith c e r ta in ite m s th a t f e a tu r e in p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e , p r i n c i p a l l y s e n s a tio n s and 'phenom enal q u a l i t i e s ' or 'q u a l i a ', whose e x is te n c e i s in c o m p a tib le w ith i t s o n to lo g ic a l com m itm ents. P r io r to any c o n s id e r a tio n of t h i s
is s u e , i t i s n e c e s s a ry to a d d re ss th e c o n tr o v e r s ia l q u e s tio n of w hat i s to he u n d e rsto o d b y m a te ria lis m , and t h i s i s th e m ain co n cern of th e p re s e n t C h a p te r. A b e g in n in g i s made by in d ic a tin g some of th e d e fe c ts t h a t have le d t o th e w id e sp re a d r e j e c t i o n o f th e v e rs io n of s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m , a s s o c ia te d w ith J .J .C . Sm art and D.M. A rm stro n g , w hich i s b a sed upon th e 'u n i t y of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is ', a c c o rd in g to w hich tlie o n ly a c c o u n t of th e w o rld t h a t i s in p r in c ip le needed i s
2
I t is,h o w e v e r, arg u ed t h a t a d e f i n i t i o n of m a te r ia lis m m ust do j u s t i c e to th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p tio n of m a te r ia lis m as th e th e o ry t h a t 'e v e r y th in g i s m a tte r and i t s m o tio n s ', an d a ls o t h a t i t sh o u ld a p p e a l to s c ie n c e . A d i s t i n c t i o n i s draw n betw een th e p h y s ic a l and s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , w ith th e fo rm er co n c e rn e d w ith th e s p a t i a l s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld and th e b e h a v io u r of i t s c o n s titu e n ts qua s p a t i a l e n t i t i e s , and th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s c o n cern e d to c h a r a c te r is e th e w o rld in f u n c tio n a l r o le te rm s . M a te ria lism i s th e n a l l i e d to th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s ,th ro u g h a s u g g e ste d d e f i n i t i o n w h ic h c h a r a c te r is e s i t as a th e o ry a b o u t th e i n t r i n s i c s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld t h a t cla im s t h i s to c o n s is t of s p a t i a l e n t i t i e s . The c la u s e s o f th e d e f i n i t i o n accom m odate th e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e p tio n of m a te r ia lis m ,a n d a tte m p t to av o id c r itic is m s th a t may be r a is e d a g a in s t th e a p p e a l to th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s and th e i n t r i n s i c a l l y s p a t i a l s tr u c tu r e o f th e w o rld .
2 . M a te ria lis m , p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e and th e pro b lem of d e fin in g 'm a te r ia lis m '.
3
-o th e r m-odes -of se n se by w hich we p e rc e iv e th e en v ir-o n m en t th u s c-o u n t os p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e s , b u t we p ro p o se a ls o to co u n t th e e x p e rie n c e of b o d ily s e n s a tio n s ns p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e s — in t h i s c a se i n t r a - b o d ily p e rc e p tio n , of w h ich more w i l l be s a id in th e n e x t C h ap te r.
I t i s on th e b a s is of th e p re s e n t u n d e rsta n d in g of p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e t h a t i t may be cla im ed t h a t c r u c ia l problem s f o r m a te ria lis m a re posed by ite m s c o n ta in e d in t h a t e x p e rie n c e .
F orem ost among such item s a re ones t h a t have been r e f e r r e d to c o l l e c t i v e l y as 's e n s a t i o n s '. T h is c la s s em braces n o t o n ly th e a fo re m e n tio n e d b o d ily s e n s a tio n s , su ch a s p a in s , b u t a ls o c o n te n ts of a b e r r a n t p e rc e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e s — ones w here th e s e n s o ry mode m is fu n c tio n s and f a i l s th e r e f o r e to p r e s e n t th e w o rld a s i t i s - of w h ich th e u s u a l exam ple i s a fte rim a g e s . B ut a secon d c la s s of item s
4
-Now th e d e f i n i t i o n of m a te ria lis m i s a c o n tro v e rs y in p h ilo so p h y in i t s own r i g h t . A ccoun ts of w hat i s m eant by m a te ria lis m can be c r i t i c i s e d f o r b e in g , f o r ex am ple, to o s tro n g , to o w eak, o r to o ad hoc - c o n triv e d m e re ly f o r th e p u rp o se of s e t t i n g up a s p e c if ic problem t h a t m a te ria lis m m ust overcom e. The u s u a l exam ples o f a c c o u n ts t h a t a re c o n s id e re d to o s tro n g
2 3
a re th o s e a s s o c ia te d w ith J .J .C . S m art and D.M. A rm strong . They a re to o s tro n g b e c a u s e , in C ornm an's w o rd s, th e y 's a d d le ' th e th e o r y 'w ith th e r e d u c tio n of e v e ry th in g to e n t i t i e s e x p la in a b le
4
b y one b a s ic s c i e n c e '. And no b e t t e r exam ple of an ad hoc d e f in iti o n may be in s ta n c e d th a n C ornm an's own one, in h is book
5
5
-Num erous exam ples of d e f in iti o n s of m a te ria lis m t h a t a re to o weak have been c ite d , a lso -w e ak in th e sen se of f a i l i n g to d i s tin g u is h m a te r ia lis m from o n to lo g ic a l th e o r ie s t h a t i t i s in te n d e d t o be
c o n tra s te d w ith .^ And t h i s s ta te of a f f a i r s n a tu r a lly can en co u rag e s c e p tic is m a s to th e p o s s i b i l i t y of an ad eq u a te d e f in iti o n of
m a te r ia lis m . T hus, D.H. M e llo r h a s 't e n t a t i v e l y ' co n clu d ed 't h a t g
i t ca n n o t be w e ll enough d e fin e d to make i t of i n t e r e s t '. I t may, how ever, be n o te d t h a t even i f t h i s c o n c lu sio n i s a c c e p te d ,th e r e a re i n t e r e s t i n g and im p o rta n t is s u e s th a t have a r is e n in th e c o n te x t of th e a tte m p t to d efen d th e th e o ry t h a t w ould su rv iv e i t s dem ise f o r w ant of an ad eq u a te d e f i n i t i o n . N o tab le among th e s e i s one on w h ich Cornman w ish e d to fo c u s th ro u g h h is ad hoc d e f in iti o n : w h e th e r we co u ld d is p e n s e w ith t a l k ab o u t s e n s a tio n s o r phenom enal p r o p e r tie s and s u b s t i t u t e d e s c r ip tio n s drawn from p h y sic s or n e u ro p h y sio lo g y w hich do n o t re c o g n is e th e e x is te n c e of a n y th in g h av in g th e n a tu r e
of s e n s a tio n s or phenom enal q u a l i t i e s a s o r d in a r ily u n d e rs to o d , and th e re b y o b ta in a t r u e r o r m ore a c c u ra te d e s c r ip tio n of th e w o rld . C o n s id e ra tio n of t h i s is s u e w ill f e a tu r e p ro m in e n tly in th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s io n , b u t i t w i l l be a d d re sse d a s a problem f o r th e d e fe n c e of m a te ria lis m , f o r i t w i l l be arg u ed in w hat fo llo w s t h a t M e llo r 's c o n c lu s io n ab o u t m a te ria lis m i s p e rh a p s u n d u ly p e s s im is tic . The d e f i n i t i o n t h a t w i l l be p ro p o sed h e re i s one t h a t a tte m p ts t o ta k e ac co u n t o f th e p i t f a l l s exposed in o th e r a tte m p ts to d e fin e m a te ria lis m , w h ile re m a in in g f a i t h f u l t o th e id e a s t h a t a re i t s i n s p i r a t i o n . I t i s n o t a n tic ip a te d t h a t th e p ro p o sa l w ill i t s e l f be im nune fro m c r i t i c i s m , b u t i t m ig h t be t h a t som ething l ik e i t w ould s u f f i c e . The d e f i n i t i o n w ill em erge by way of a c o n s id e ra tio n of th e
6
-5 . M a te ria lis m and p h y sic s
T ra d i tio n a lly , ma t e r i a l i sm h a s been u n d e rsto o d a s cla im in g th a t
Q
'e v e ry th in g i s j u s t m a tte r and i t s m o tio n s ', and th u s d en y in g , f o r exam ple, t h a t th e re a r e two u ltim a te c a te g o r ie s of su b sta n c e in th e w o rld , m ind and m a tte r . R ecen t a d v o c a te s of m a te ria lis m have,how ever,
ad o p ted a m ore p r e c is e and r e s t r i c t i v e c o n s tr u a l of th e th e o ry b ased on th e o n to lo g y of p h y s ic s , a s when J .J .C . Sm art s a y s :
Hy 'm a te r ia lis m ' I mean th e th e o ry th a t th e re i s n o th in g in th e w o rld o v e r and above th o s e e n t i t i e s w hicli o re p o s tu la te d by p h y s ic s (o r, o f c o u rs e , th o s e e n t i t i e s w hich w ill be p o s tu la te d by f u tu r e and more a d eq u a te p h y s ic a l t h e o r i e s ) .
'N o th in g in th e w o rld over and above w hat i s p o s tu la te d by p h y s ic s ' co tm iits th e m a t e r i a l i s t to an a c c o u n t of man t h a t i s co m p atib le w ith th e o n to lo g ic a l s tr in g e n c ie s t h i s im poses, and th u s i t i s t h a t D.M. A rm stro n g , who s h a re s S m art's i h y s i c a l i s t i c c o n c e p tio n of m a te ria lis m , c o n ten d s t h a t :
F o r a m a t e r i a l i s t , a man i s a p h y s ic a l o b je c t, d is tin g u is h e d from o th e r p h y s ic a l o b je c ts o n ly b y th e s p e c ia l co m p lex ity of h is p h y s ic a l o r g a n is a tio n . lie does n o t have any non p h y s ic a l p r o p e r t i e s . ^
W hy,how ever, sh o u ld m a te ria lis m be e x p re s s ly fo rm u la te d b y re fe re n c e to p h y s ic s ? The m ain re a so n why Sm art and A rm strong ta k e t h i s co u rse i s , i t seem s, t h a t th e y w ish t o d e fe n d a s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m , one t h a t f in d s i t s j u s t i c a t i o n in th e su c c e ss of s c ie n c e as an ac c o u n t of
12
7
-so a s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m h as a c le a r a f f i n i t y f o r th a t s c ie n c e , and one w hich i s r e in f o r c e d by th e f a c t t h a t p h y sic s seek s t o in v e s tig a te th e fu n d a m en ta l c o n s titu e n ts of m a tte r , w hat u ltim a te ly th e re i s in th e m a te r ia l w o rld . I t i s ,how ever, one th in g to re c o g n is e p h y sic s as h av in g a fu n d a m e n ta l r o le in th e s c i e n t i f i c ac c o u n t o f th e w o rld and a n o th e r to say t h a t p h y s ic s s u f f ic e s a s an ac co u n t of th e w o rld , w hich i s im p lie d b y th e a s s e r tio n t h a t th e r e i s n o th in g in th e w o rld o th e r th a n th e e n t i t i e s p o s tu la te d by p h y s ic s . W hat ab o u t th e e n t i t i e s w hich o th e r s c ie n c e s p o s tu la te ? I t i s a t t h i s p o in t t h a t C ornm an's rem ark a b o u t d e f i n i t i o n s of m a te ria lis m th a t s a d d le
th e th e o ry w ith th e r e d u c tio n of e v e ry th in g to e n t i t i e s e x p la in a b le by one b a s ic sc ie n c e f in d s i t s a p p lic a tio n , f o r Sm art and A rm s tro n g 's view of s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m ta k e s as i t s j u s t i f i c a t i o n th e h y p o th e s is t h a t a l l o th e r s c ie n c e s may be re d u c e d to p h y s ic s , w hich th e n becom es th e o n ly s c ie n c e th a t i s u ltim a te ly re q u ir e d in a c c o u n tin g f o r th e w o rld . Thus, A rm strong, ta k in g h is cue from S m art, p re s e n ts h i s
d e fe n ce of m a te ria lis m on th e b a s is of th e c o n v ic tio n th a t:
I t seems in c re a s in g l i k e l y t h a t a l l ch em ica l and b io lo g ic a l h ap p en in g s a rc e x p lic a b le a s a p p lic a tio n s of th e law s of p h y sic s t h a t govern n o n -c h e m ic a l and n o n -b io lo g ic a l
. 13
phenom ena,
and w ith b io lo g y so r e d u c e d ,th e e x p e c ta tio n i s t h a t s c ie n c e s n e x t in l i n e , such a s p sy ch o lo g y , w h ich d e a ls w ith human c o n sc io u s phenom ena, may fo llo w . The ta s k th e n i s to rem ove p h ilo s o p h ic a l o b je c tio n s to t h a t s ta g e in th e a c h iev e m en t of th e u n ity of s c ie n c e .
8
-h y p o t-h e s is of t-h e u n ity of s c ie n c e , i s a s u s ta in a b le one. I t i s a t th e p r e s e n t tim e w id e ly b e lie v e d , even by a t l e a s t one p h ilo s o p h e r, H ila ry Putnam , who f i r s t b ro u g h t th e h y p o th e s is to p h ilo s o p h ic a l
14
a t t e n t i o n , t h a t t h i s i s a f a l s e h y p o th e s is , b u t p r io r to any a tte m p t to d e v e lo p an a l t e r n a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n of m a te r ia lis m ,it i s n e c e s s a ry to c o n s id e r why p r e c is e ly one b a sed on th e u n ity of sc ie n c e h y p o th e s is m ust be r e je c te d .
4 . The u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is .
To say th a t p h y sic s s u f f ic e s a s on ac co u n t of th e w o rld i s am biguous in s o f a r as th e r e a re a t l e a s t tw o s e n s e s in w hich su ch an a c c o u n t may be g iv e n , r e s p e c tiv e ly w hat may be c a lle d th e 'in v e n to r y ' se n se and th e 'e x p la n a to r y 's e n s e . In th e in v e n to ry sen se, p h y sic s w ould be h e ld ca p a b le of p ro v id in g a com plete l i s t i n g of th e s o r t s of phenom ena t o be found in th e w o rld ,a n d i t s c o n s titu e n ts - a sen se t o w h ich , b y th e p re v io u s q u o ta tio n s , Sm art and A rm strong a re c l e a r l y co m m itted . In th e e x p la n a to ry se n se , p h y sic s i s s im ila r ly h e ld to o f f e r a co m p lete e x p la n a tio n , a l l th e e x p la n a tio n t h a t i s r e q u ir e d ,o f a l l th a t o c c u rs in th e w o rld , and in e sp o u sin g th e h y p o th e s is of th e u n ity of s c ie n c e th e y a re em bracing t h i s sen se of 's u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t'a ls o . In d e e d , when in th e p re v io u s S e c tio n we in tro d u c e d t h i s h y p o t h e s i s ,i t was a s th e m eans b y w hich Sm art and A rm strong j u s t i f y th e c la im t h a t we n eed o n ly re c o g n is e th e e n t i t i e s t h a t p h y sic s p o s tu la te s , th e cla im t h a t p h y s ic s i s a s u f f i c i e n t ac c o u n t in th e in v e n to ry s e n s e . B ut th e r e d u c tio n of s c ie n c e s , a s th e q u o ta tio n from A rm strong in d ic a te d , c o n s is ts in t h e i r e x p la n a tio n in term s of th e law s of a n o th e r s c ie n c e . The q u e s tio n th e r e f o r e a r i s e s a s t o how th e p u rp o rte d e x p la n a to ry s u f f ic ie n c y of p h y sic s y ie ld s in v e n to ry s u f f ic ie n c y .
9
-Tile answ er l i e s in th e p r e c is e form of e x p la n a tio n b y w hich i t i s p ro p o se d th e u n ity of sc ie n c e may be a c h ie v e d . In t h e i r a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d 'T he u n ity of s c ie n c e a s a w o rk ing h y p o th e s is ', w hich a rg u a b ly in flu e n c e d b o th Sm art an d A rm strong, P. Oppenhcim and Putnam in d ic a te t h a t i t i s by m ic ro -re d u c tio n o f th e th e o r ie s or law s of o th e r s c i e n c e s ,^ u ltim a te ly t o th e law s of p h y s ic s , t h a t a l l o th e r s c ie n c e s a re re n d e re d p o t e n t i a l l y e lim in a b le in fa v o u r of p h y s ic s . A m ic ro -re d u c tio n o c c u rs when th e b e h a v io u r d e s c rib e d by a p a r t i c u l a r s e t of law s c o n s titu tin g a 're d u c e d ' th e o ry , T^, i s e x p la in e d by a s e t of law s p ro v id ed b y a 're d u c in g ' th e o ry , T^, w h ich r e l a t e to th e b e h a v io u r of th e s p a t i a l c o n s titu e n ts of th e e n t i t i e s whose b e h a v io u r i s d e s c rib e d by T ^.
10
-b e h a v io u r of s tr u c tu r e s of su -b -a to m ic p a r t i c l e s as d e s c ri-b e d -by p h y s ic s ,th e n i t w ould f u r th e r seem t h a t th e d e s c r ip tio n s of p h y sic s a re th e o n ly ones n eed ed , a t l e a s t i n p r in c ip le . The r e q u ir e d d e s c r ip tio n s may be v e ry c o m p lic a te d and de f a c to p e rh a p s im p o ssib le to p ro v id e f o r t h a t re a s o n , b u t th e p o in t w ould s t i l l be e s ta b lis h e d t h a t in p r in c ip le p h y sic s s u f f ic e s b o th as an in v e n to ry and an e x p la n a tio n of th e w o rld , and i t i s t o t h i s t h a t a d v o c a te s of m a te r ia lis m l ik e Sm art and A rm strong a re co m m itted .
I t sh o u ld be n o te d th a t ,u n l i k c in th e c a se of th e re d u c tio n of ch em ica l law s t o p h y s ic a l ones, i t i s n o t e n v isa g e d t h a t law s and th e o r ie s c o n s titu tin g o th e r s c ie n c e s w ould be d i r e c t l y red u c ed to p h y s ic s . The p a tte r n of m ic ro -re d u c tio n w hich s c ie n c e e v in c e s i s o f m ic ro -re d u c tio n betw een s c ie n c e s d e a lin g w ith a d ja c e n t 'le v e ls o f e x i s t e n c e ', of w hich Oppenheim and l*utnam s u g g e st th e r e a re th e
18
fo llo w in g , w h ich th e y l i s t in d e sc e n d in g num ber o rd e r so th a t th e l e a s t com plex and m ost b a s ic e n t i t i e s have th e lo w est r e fe re n c e
num ber: (6 ) s o c ia l g ro u p s; (5) m u l t i c e l l u l a r liv in g th in g s ; ( k ) c e l l s ;
(3 ) m o le c u le s; (2 ) atom s; ( l ) e le m e n ta ry p a r t i c l e s . The o rd e rin g i s su ch t h a t e n t i t i e s of each g iv en l e v e l , a p a r t from th e l a s t , have a s t h e i r im m ediate c o n s titu e n ts th o s e e n t i t i e s a t th e n e x t le v e l down, and s im ila r ly , r e d u c tio n of th e o r ie s d e a lin g w ith e n t i t i e s of a
11
a p p ly in g to th e n e x t l e v e l down, and i s in tu r n c o rre s p o n d in g ly red u c ed by a th e o ry , th e n re d u c e s t o T^ .
P r io r t o c r i t i c i s i n g th e a tte m p t t o d e fin e m a te ria lis m a s th e th e o ry t h a t p h y sic s g iv e s a s u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t of th e w o rld in b o th th e in v e n to r y and e x p la n a to ry s e n s e s , w h ich i s w hat Sm art and A rm stro n g 's view am ounts to , i t i s a p p ro p r ia te to sum m arise th e n a tu re of th e
dependence of t h i s on th e u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is . The p o s itio n i s a s f o llo w s :
(1 ) The j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r th e b e l i e f t h a t p h y s ic s g iv e s a s u f f i c i e n t ac co u n t o f th e w o rld in b o th th e in v e n to ry and e x p la n a to ry se n se s depends upon th e h y p o th e s is t h a t a l l s c ie n c e s a re r e d u c ib le to p h y sic s b y th e m icro —r e d u c tio n of th e th e o r ie s t h a t c o n s titu te them - th e u n ity of sc ie n c e h y p o th e s is .
(2 ) A m ic ro -re d u c tio n c o n s is ts in e x p la in in g a phenomenon in term s
of th e b e h a v io u r of th e s p a t i a l c o n s titu e n ts of th e phenomenon co n cern ed , and t h i s s o r t of e x p la n a tio n am ounts to a r e - d e s c r ip tio n of i t .
(3 ) I f a phenomenon i s th u s r e - d e s c r ib e d , th e o r ig in a l d e s c r ip tio n may in p r in c ip le be d is p e n se d w ith ,a n d s in c e m ic ro —re d u c tio n i s t r a n s i t i v e , a phenomenon a t an y g iv e n l e v e l of e x is te n c e may be r e —d e s c r ib e d , u ltim a te ly , in term s of th e d e s c r ip tio n s of p h y sic s r e l a t i n g t o s tr u c tu r e s of fu n d a m en ta l p a r t i c l e s . T h is h as th e r e s u l t ttia t a l l o th e r d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e w o rld may in p r in c ip le be d isp e n se d w ith in fa v o u r of th e la tte r ,w h ic h a re th e re b y shown to be a s u f f i c i e n t
12
-5. Tile u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is r e je c te d
T h ere a re tw o m ain re a s o n s why th e u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is m ust b e r e je c te d ,b o th of w h ich have been i d e n tif i e d b y Putnam in
19
h is l a t e r w r itin g s . The f i r s t i s th a t th e re are r e g u l a r i t i e s of n a tu r e to be fo u n d a t one le v e l of e x is te n c e f o r w h ich th e re a re no c o rre s p o n d in g r e g u l a r i t i e s a t low er le v e ls of e x is te n c e , so th a t d e s c r ip tio n s r e l a t i n g t o su ch r e g u l a r i t i e s may n o t be d isp e n se d w ith i n fa v o u r o f low er le v e l ones. Second, i t may be argued t h a t even i f th e re w ere to be c o e x te n siv e d e s c r ip tio n s a t lo w er le v e ls f o r one d e s c r ib in g a r e g u l a r i t y a t some h ig h e r l e v e l , i t w ould n o t n e c e s s a r ily f o llo w t h a t th e l a t t e r w as d is p e n s a b le , f o r th e t r u t h s a s s e r te d may d i f f e r .
The f i r s t o f th e s e o b je c tio n s may be i l l u s t r a t e d by r e f e r e n c e to a h ig h e r le v e l c a se of m ic ro -re d u c tio n . In econom ics th e te n d e n c y f o r a f a l l in th e p r ic e of a p ro d u c t t o cau se more of i t t o be p u rc h a se d , a la w lik e r e la tio n s h ip , i s e x p la in e d by th e e f f e c t of th e f a l l i n g p r ic e on th e p u rc h a sin g d e c is io n s of in d iv id u a ls . T h is may be r e p r e s e n te d as a l e v e l (6 ) phenom enon, th e g r e a te r demand f o r a good w ith in a s o c ia l g ro u p , b e in g e x p la in e d in term s of th e b e h a v io u r of m u lti- c e lle d liv in g th in g s , le v e l (5 ) in Putnam and O ppcnheim 's h ie ra rc h y . R ut any f u r th e r m ic ro —re d u c tio n a p p e a rs to be th w a rte d f o r w ant of th e r e q u i s i t e
r e g u l a r i t y . The re q u ire m e n t would be f o r an e x p la n a tio n of th e in d iv id u a l p u rc h a sin g d e c is io n s a t th e le v e l of in d iv id u a l c e l l s or a s s e m b lie s of in d iv id u a l c e l l s , presu m ab ly b r a in c e l l s , i n view of t h e i r o b v io u s r o le in d e te rm in in g human b e h a v io u r. However, th e re i s , i t seem s, no p a r t i c u l a r p a tte r n o f b r a in c e l l a c t i v i t y w hich c o rre sp o n d s to
13
-The s tr u c tu r e of th e b r a in changes over tim e , f o r exam ple to com pensate f o r c e l l lo s s e s , and a ls o a s a r e s u l t of p re v io u s a c t i v i t y , so th e r e i s no q u e s tio n of a l l th e in d iv id u a ls who ta k e th e d e c is io n to buy m ore of a good u n d e rg o in g e x a c tly th e same p a tte r n of b r a in c e l l a c t i v i t y . I f th e r e g u l a r i t y i s l o s t a t th e le v e l of in d iv id u a l c e l l s ,t h e r e w i l l c e r t a i n l y be no
c o rre s p o n d in g r e g u l a r i t y a t th e le v e l o f t h e i r s p a t i a l c o n s titu e n ts . A f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t i o n i s p ro v id ed by t h e c a se of p a in . T h is i s a n a t u r a l l y o c c u rin g phenomenon to w hich v a r io u s s o r t s of m u lti—c e lle d
o rg an ism s a re p ro n e , b u t a t th e le v e l o f in d iv id u a l c e l l s o r a s s e m b lie s of such ite m s th e r e i s no common p a tte r n of a c t i v i t y c o rre s p o n d in g to t h a t phenom enon. The f i r i n g of C - f ib r e s , w hich i s th e n e u ro p h y s io lo g ic a l c o r r e la te of p a in in humans t h a t i s f a m i l i a r in th e l i t e r a t u r e on
20
m a te ria lis m , does n o t o ccu r in o c to p u s e s , b u t, Putnam n o te s , th e y n e v e r th e le s s a re known to f e e l p a in .
— l i t
-d is c e rn e -d a t h ig h e r le v e ls a re f a l s e , w hich w oul-d be an ex trem e and im p la u s ib le p o s itio n t o ta k e , b u t t h a t th e y may be r e - d e s c r ib e d by re fe re n c e to low er le v e l phenomena - u ltim a te ly , th o s e re c o g n is e d by fu n d am en tal p a r t i c l e p h y s ic s . The u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is th u s a p p e a rs a f a l s e one.
The problem of r e g u l a r i t i e s found a t h ig h e r le v e ls t h a t have no c o u n te rp a rt low er down is,m o re o v e r, n o t c o n fin e d to th e e x p la n a tio n of o c c u re n c e s, f o r i t a ls o a p p lie s to th e d e s c r ip tio n o f s tr u c tu r e s in th e w o rld . T here a re no r e g u l a r i t i e s of s tr u c tu r e a t th e le v e l of a sse m b lie s o f in d iv id u a l m o lecu les t h a t c o rre sp o n d e x a c tly t o th e r e g u l a r i t y o f s tr u c tu r e d is c e rn e d by th e n o tio n of a c e l l in b io lo g y . No tw o c e l l s have j u s t th e same m o le c u la r c o n s titu e n ts , so from th e p o in t of view of m o le c u la r a sse m b lie s th e re i s no such th in g a s a c e l l . Once a g a in ,th e r e f o r e ,p h y s ic s may o n ly be p o rtra y e d a s a s u f f i c i e n t in v e n to ry of w hat th e re i s in th e w o rld by r e p u d ia tin g e n t i t i e s , n o t r e - d e s c r ib in g them .
15
-f a c t t h a t i t i s -f a l s e th a t th e r e i s a s in g le sucli p a tte r n -f o r a l l humans who d e cid e to buy more of a good shows t h i s ; a p o in t w hich
21
Putnam h a s r e in f o r c e d by s u g g e s tin g im a g in a ry exam ples t o th e e f f e c t t h a t com m unities of i n t e l l i g e n t r o b o ts , a r t i f a c t s , t o t a l l y
la c k in g i n b r a in c e l l s , c o u ld , g iv e n th e a p p ro p ria te 's o c ia l i n s t i t u t i o n s ', engage in econom ic a c t i v i t y . I f th e t r u t h s a s s e r te d b y tw o d e s c r ip tio n s a re th u s shown to d i f f e r even i f th e y happen to be c o e x te n s iv e in t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n ,i t fo llo w s t h a t one i s n o t d is p e n s a b le in fa v o u r of th e o th e r,b e c a u s e to d is p e n se w ith one of them w ould mean t h a t we w ould no lo n g e r be a b le t o e x p re ss a t r u t h t h a t we w ere p r e v io u s ly c a p a b le of e x p re s s in g .
16
-A com puter program i s a sequence of i n s t r u c t i o n s to w hich th e o p e ra tio n of a com puter conform s when th e y a r c program med in to i t , in s t r u c t i o n s t h a t r e f e r t o such o p e ra tio n s a s s to r in g d a ta , p e rfo rm in g m a th e m a tic a l o p e ra tio n s on i t , and d is p la y in g th e r e s u l t . In s h o r t, i t r e f e r s t o a s e t of f u n c tio n s . I t does n o t , h o w ev e r,im p ly any s p e c if ic m echanism by w hich th o se f u n c tio n s a r e to be e x e c u te d . The com puter c o u ld be com posed of on arran g em en t o f t r a n s i s t o r s , vacuum tu b e s , o r w h a te v e r e ls e - a l l t h a t m a tte rs fro m th e p o in t of v iew of e x e c u tin g a program i s t h a t i t somehow lias th e means of p e rfo rm in g th e r e q u ir e d f u n c tio n s . The r e l a t i o n betw een a s c ie n c e l i k e econom ics and n e u ro p h y s io lo g y may be view ed a s s im ila r t o th a t betw een com puter program s and com puter h ard w are. W ith in e c o n o m ic s,th e d e c is io n t o buy more of a good w hose p r ic e h as f a l l e n i s an e v e n t r e s u l t i n g from th e co m b in a tio n o f in fo rm a tio n re c e iv e d ab o u t th e change in p r ic e , a b i l i t y to pay and th e e x is te n c e in th e in d iv id u a l econom ic a g e n t, w h atev e r h is i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e , of a r a t i o n a l p re fe re n c e f u n c tio n a c c o rd in g t o w hich th e a g e n t se e k s t o m axim ise th e u t i l i t y d e riv e d from t h e i r lim ite d
r e s o u r c e s . None o f t h i s p resu p p o se s t h a t th e a g e n t be c o n s titu te d in any p a r t i c u l a r way so f a r a s th e m echanism s th a t make econom ic b e h a v io u r p o s s ib le ,a n y more th a n th e a b i l i t y t o execute a p a r t i c u l a r program im p lie s t h a t a com puter has a p a r t i c u l a r m echanism , th e d e s c r ip tio n s b e in g e q u a lly co ncerned w ith f u n c tio n a l r o l e s r a th e r th a n t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l r e a l i s a t i o n .
d e b a te o v er th e a b i l i t y o f th e s u b je c t to s u rv iv e a s s im ila tio n
2 k
to n e u ro p h y s io lo g y . Much co n tem p o rary psych ology i s d ir e c te d t o e x p la in in g human c o g n itiv e p erfo rm an ce by p o s tu la tin g f u n c tio n a lly d e fin e d com ponents in th e b r a in t h a t w ould ac co u n t f o r th e o b serv ed p e rfo rm an ce of in d iv id u a ls in p a r t i c u l a r ta s k s . And t h i s ap p ro ach e n su re s th e i n a b i l i t y t o d is p e n se w ith i t s d e s c r ip tio n s in fa v o u r of n e u ro p h y s io lo g y , f o r re a s o n s a lr e a d y a p p a re n t. I t is ,m o re o v e r, n o t o n ly in s c ie n c e s a d d re s s in g h ig h e r le v e ls of e x is te n c e ,s u c h a s th o se of s o c ia l g ro u p s and m u lti- c e lle d l i v i n g t h i n g s ,t h a t f u n c tio n a l co n cep ts a re e n c o u n te re d . A c l a s s i c exam ple of such a co n cep t i s fo u n d in
b io lo g y a t th e le v e l of in d iv id u a l c e l l s , i n th e n o tio n of a g ene, w h ich a p p lie s to w h a te v e r i t i s in c e l l s th a t p e rfo rm th e f u n c tio n a l r o le of tr a n s m ittin g h e r e d ita r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t h a s tu rn e d out t h a t th e s t r u c t u r a l ite m s t h a t p erfo rm t h i s r o le a re DNA m o le c u le s.
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-and th e more m o d est re n d e rin g s t h a t a rc im p lie d hy t h e i r a c tu a l d e fe n c e s of m a te r ia lis m .
6 , Tow ards an a l t e r n a t i v e d e f i n i t i o n ; Sm art and A rm strong re c o n s id e re d We have s e e n how in d e fin in g m a te ria lis m o r th e m a t e r i a l i s t view of m an,Sm art a n d A rm strong commit th e m se lv e s to th e u n ity of sc ie n c e h y p o th e s is . I t th e n m akes an ir o n i c c o n tr a s t t h a t in h is ac co u n t of how d e s c r ip tio n s r e l a t i n g to m e n ta l phenom ena sh o u ld be u n d e rsto o d so a s to re n d e r th e m co m p atib le w ith a m a t e r i a l i s t view of th e w o rld , A rm strong s h o u ld ap p eal t o th e a n a lo g y o f f e r e d by th e co n cep t of a gene in b io lo g y , a co n cep t w h ich we have co n clu d ed i s a f u n c tio n a l one and n o t i n p r in c ip le d is p e n s a b le in fa v o u r of one r e l a t i n g to p h y s ic a l s t r u c t u r e . T y p ic a lly , a c c o rd in g to A rm strong, d e s c r ip tio n s c o n c e rn in g 'm e n ta l phenom ena' may be u n d e rsto o d a s r e f e r r i n g m e re ly to 'a s t a t e o f th e p e rso n a p t f o r b rin g in g about a c e r ta in s o r t of
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b e h a v io u r'. I n common w itli th e gene and o th e r f u n c tio n a l r o le c o n c e p ts , t h i s s p e c if ic a tio n i s q u ite n o n -co m m ittal a s to th e i n t r i n s i c n a tu re o f w h at i s b e in g r e f e r r e d t o . The s t a t e a p t f o r p ro d u cin g a c e r ta in s o r t o f b e h a v io u r m igh t tu r n o u t t o be a n e u ro p h y s io lo g ic a l phenomenon o r a c o n d itio n of an im m a te ria l m ind. B u t, of c o u rse , w h ile th e a p p lic a tio n of su ch d e s c r ip tio n s does n o t im p ly th e
19
-a fte rim -a g e , f o r ex -am p le, m e-ans, ro u g h ly , th -a t th e re i s som ething g o in g on in him w h ich i s lik e w hat ta k e s p la c e when h e sees an
26
o ran g e, w hich i s a g a in a d e s c r ip tio n unknown to p h y s ic s . I t n e v e r th e le s s le a v e s th e way c le a r f o r th e o c c u rre n c e o f having an a fte rim a g e to he i n i t s i n t r i n s i c n a tu re sim p ly th e o c c u rre n c e of a c e r t a i n b r a in phenom enon.
R e la tin g th e s e o b s e rv a tio n s to th e e a r l i e r c o n t r a s t betw een f u n c tio n a l r o le and s t r u c t u r a l d e s c r ip tio n s of th e w o rld , i t now a p p e a rs th a t w hat i n e f f e c t Sm art and A rm strong a re a d v o c a tin g i s m a te r ia lis m a s a th e o r y ab o u t th e s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld , r a th e r th a n a s co m prehending a l l t h a t may be s a id of i t . F o r,w lia t th e y a rc d o in g i s a tte m p tin g to c le a r th e way f o r p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip tio n s a s a s u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t of th e i n t r i n s i c n a tu re s o f ite m s in th e w o rld t h a t a re p ic k e d o u t by o th e r s o r ts of d e s c r ip tio n s , such a s
ones c o n c e rn in g m e n ta l phenom ena, by re n d e rin g th e l a t t e r in f u n c tio n a l or o th e rw is e ' to p ic —n e u tr a l' term s — n e u t r a l , th a t i s , in r e g a rd to th e i n t r i n s i c n a tu re of w hat i s d e n o te d . T h is i s a f a r m ore p ro m isin g c o n s tr u a l of m a te ria lis m th a n t h e i r o f f i c i a l one, w ith i t s u n te n a b le com m itm ent to th e u n ity of s c ie n c e h y p o th e s is ,
and in w hat fo llo w s th e a tte m p t w i l l be made to a r r i v e a t a w o rk able s p e c if ic a tio n of m a te r ia lis m a s a th e o ry ab o u t th e s t r u c tu r e of th e w o rld .
7 . A d e f i n i t i o n o f m a te ria lis m
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-and s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m h as n a tu r a l l y fo c u s s e d on p h y s ic s , th e s c ie n c e of m a tte r . I t may he a rg u e d , t h e n ,t h a t i f a th e o r y of th e w o rld i s to be i d e n t i f i a b l y m a t e r i a l i s t , i t ought to p re s e rv e in some sen se th e id e a t h a t e v e ry th in g i s m a tte r and i t s m o tio n s. A c le a r way of r e ta in in g t h i s id e a is ,m o re o v e r, o ffe re d tliro u g h th e p ro p o sa l t h a t m a te ria lis m be re g a rd e d a s a th e o ry ab o u t th e s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld to th e e f f e c t t h a t , fro m a s t r u c t u r a l p o in t of v ie w ,e v e ry th in g i s j u s t m a tte r and i t s m o tio n s. The o n ly s t r u c tu r e s th e n th a t e n a b le p a r t i c u l a r f u n c tio n a l r o l e , or o th e r d e s c r ip tio n s t h a t a re n e u tr a l re g a rd in g th e p r e c is e i n t r i n s i c n a tu re s of th e c o n s titu e n ts of th e w o rld , to a p p ly to th e w o rld a re m a te r ia l o n es; i t i s o n ly by th e m o tio n s of su ch s tr u c tu r e s t h a t f u n c tio n a l r o l e s a re c a r r ie d o u t. However e ls e th e y may be d e s c rib e d , a l l o c c u rre n c e s in th e w o rld a re on t h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g m o tio n s of m a tte r .
In a c le a r se n se th e n i t i s p o s s ib le , i t a p p e a rs , to p ro p o se th a t e v e ry th in g i s j u s t m a tte r and i t s m otio ns, a lth o u g h t h i s i s n o t to im p ly t h a t a l l d e s c r ip tio n s a re d is p e n s a b le in fa v o u r of
21
r e g u l a r i t i e s in th e w o rld t h a t a re n o t d is c e rn e d a t th e le v e l of e x is te n c e w here th e d e s c r ip tio n s of p h y sic s a lo n e a p p ly - th a t of fu n d a m en ta l p a r t i c l e s . The exam ple we to o k of a s t r u c t u r a l r e g u la r ity t h a t p h y s ic s does n o t d is c e r n was t h a t of th e c e l l in b io lo g y - a lth o u g h c e l l s a re u ltim a te ly com posed of fu n d am en tal p a r t i c l e s ,t h e r e i s no one s tr u c tu r e o f fu n d a m en ta l p a r t i c l e s t h a t a l l c e l l s s h a r e . M ore sc ie n c e s b e s id e s p h y sic s m ust th e r e f o r e be in v o lv e d ,a n d i t a p p e a rs re a s o n a b le t o do so . O th er s c ie n c e s b e s id e s p h y sic s a d d re s s th e s tr u c tu r e of m a tte r ; a c e l l i s as much a s tr u c tu r e of m a tte r a s th e atom , th e d if f e r e n c e b e in g sim p ly th e g r e a te r
s tr u c tu r a l c o m p le x ity in th e fo rm er c a se .
The q u e s tio n ,h o w e v e r,is w hat s c ie n c e s t o in v o lv e in th e d e f in iti o n of m a te ria lis m in a d d itio n t o ph3’- s ic s . The o b v io u s answ er i s a l l th o se
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p r in c ip le be d is p la y e d by g ro u p s of in d iv id u a ls q u ite d i f f e r e n t l y s tr u c tu r e d in te rm s of m a te r ia l c o m p o sitio n . In d e e d , th e in d iv id u a ls co n cern ed m ig h t have in h e r e n tly im m a te ria l c o n s titu e n ts such a s C a rte s ia n m in d s. Such f u n c tio n a lly co n ceiv ed s t r u c t u r e s a s t y p i f y th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s co n cern w ith s tr u c tu r e in th e w o rld do n o t, a c c o rd in g ly , f a l l w ith in th e dom ain of m a te ria lis m a s a th e o ry a b o u t th e s t r u c t u r e of th e w o rld , f o r th e l a t t e r i s c o n c e rn e d e x p l i c i t l y w ith s t r u c t u r e s of m a tte r . S tr u c tu re s of m a tte r a r e , m oreover, a s e x e m p lifie d by th e above c a se s of atom s, m o le c u le s and c e l l s , s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s . M a te ria lism , th e n , i s c o n c e rn e d s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith th e s p a t i a l s t r u c tu r e of th e w o rld , and th e s c ie n c e s t h a t a re to be in c lu d e d w ith in th e d e f in iti o n of m a te ria lis m a re ones t h a t c o l l e c t i v e l y c o n c e rn th e m se lv es w ith th e s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e w o rld .
The d i s t i n c t i o n we have drawn betw een s c ie n c e s t h a t a re co n cern ed w ith th e s p a t i a l s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld a n d th o s e t h a t a s c r ib e f u n c t i o n a l l y d e fin e d or o th e r a b s tr a c t s t r u c t u r e s t o i t , c o rre sp o n d s t o th e commonly drawn d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s and th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , and on t h i s b a s is s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m may a p p e a l t o th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s in i t s fo rm u la tio n . B ut h o w ,in th e l i g h t of th e s e c o n s id e r a tio n s , i s s c i e n t i f i c m a te r ia lis m t o be fo rm u la te d ? To b e g in w i t h , i t a p p e a rs wo can n o lo n g e r a c c e p t w ith o u t q u a l i f i c a t i o n th e id e a t h a t th e o n ly s t r u c t u r e s in th e w orld a re m a te r ia l o n e s, f o r t h a t w ould ex clu d e th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s '
s tr u c tu r e s when th e r e i s no r e a l c o n f l i c t betw een m a te r ia lis m and th e s t r u c tu r e s o f s o c ia l s c ie n c e ,b e c a u s e of t h e i r e s s e n t i a l l y
23
-s o c ia l -s c ie n c e a rc a b -s tr a c tio n -s a n a ly -s a b le in term -s of th e b e h a v io u r, r o le s and r u l e s , d is p la y e d by c e r ta in such o b j e c t s . We co u ld s a y ,th e n , t h a t th e co n cern of m a te ria lis m i s w ith t h e i n t r i n s i c s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld , th e s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld th a t e x is ts in i t s own r i g h t r a t h e r th a n in a d e r iv a tiv e , o r a b s t r a c t s e n s e , and o f f e r th e fo llo w in g as a f i r s t a tte m p t a t a d e f i n i t i o n :
D1: M a te ria lis m i s th e th e o ry a c c o rd in g to w hich th e i n t r i n s i c s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld c o n s is ts of s p a t i a l e n t i t i e s ,a n d th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s s u f f ic e a s an ac c o u n t of t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y s p a t i a l s tr u c tu r e .
D1 im m e d iate ly g iv e s r i s e to a num ber of q u e s tio n s . F i r s t , i t may be ask ed p r e c is e ly w h ich th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s a re — to say th e y a re ones t h a t a d d re ss th e s p a t i a l s tr u c tu r e of t h e w o rld , w h ile su p p ly in g a p r in c ip le f o r id e n tif y in g them , and e x c lu d in g , i t w ould seem , th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , le a v e s th e ta s k of a c t u a l l y
id e n tif y in g them ,an d hence th e p r e c is e o n to lo g ic a l com m itm ents of m a te ria lis m th u s d e fin e d , s t i l l to be p e rfo rm ed . T hen, i t i s a ls o re a s o n a b le to e n q u ire how th e e x p re ss io n 's u f f i c e a s a n a c c o u n t' i s to be u n d e rsto o d g iv en i t s p re v io u s ly e n c o u n te re d a m b ig u ity .
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-p h y sic s t o th e v a r io u s b io lo g ic a l s c ie n c e s . T hey do n o t have t o be e x c lu s iv e ly c o n c e rn e d w ith p ro v id in g a c c o u n ts of th e c o m p o sitio n
of s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s to q u a lif y a s p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s ; a l l t h a t i s needed i s th a t t h i s b e p a r t of t h e i r co n c e rn .
T u rn in g now t o th e second q u e s tio n , t h a t of how th e c la im t h a t th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s s u f f ic e a s an ac co u n t of th e s p a t i a l s tr u c tu r e of th e w o rld i s t o b e u n d e rsto o d , i t needs f i r s t to be r e c a l l e d th a t tlie two sen se s in w h ic h an a c c o u n t may be g iv e n of so m eth in g t h a t b e a r on d is c u s s io n o f m a te r ia lis m a re th e in v e n to r y se n se and th e e x p la n a to ry s e n s e . In th e f i r s t of th e s e , t o sa y th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s s u f f ic e a s on ac co u n t o f th e s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e of th e w o rld i s to say th e d e s c r ip tio n s of th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s in c lu d e
e v e ry th in g t h a t i s a c t u a l l y fo u n d in th e c o m p o sitio n of t h a t s tr u c tu r e . T here i s n o th in g th e y le a v e o u t. In th e secon d se n se , th e cla im i s t h a t th e y g iv e a s u f f i c i e n t e x p la n a tio n of th o s e c o n s titu e n ts , how th e y g o t to b e a s th e y a re and how th e y b e h av e . B oth s e n se s of 's u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t' a r e , m o reo v er, in v o lv e d in th e t r a d i t i o n a l c la im o f m a te ria lis m t h a t e v e ry th in g i s j u s t m a tte r and i t s m o tio n s. T he id e a t h a t e v e ry th in g i s j u s t m a tte r s u g g e s ts th e in v e n to ry s e n s e , and th e id e a t h a t e v e ry th in g t h a t o c c u rs i s j u s t m o tio n s of m a tte r im p lie s t h a t e v e ry th in g t h a t o c c u rs may be e x p la in e d as m o tio n s of m a tte r, an d hence th e e x p la n a to ry se n se of 's u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t'. S in ce we hav e been co n cern e d t o do j u s t i c e to t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l cla im , th e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f m a te ria lis m t h a t we a rc se e k in g s h o u ld a c c o rd in g ly in c o rp o r a te b o th s e n s e s of
25
-In em bracing b o th s e n s e s , how ever, p a r t i c u l a r caro m u st be ta k e n w ith th e e x p la n a to ry s e n s e , f o r we have co n clu d ed t h a t e x p la n a tio n s of phenomena in th e w o rld t h a t a re n o n -c o m m itta l a s to th e i n t r i n s i c n a tu re o f th e e n t i t i e s to w hich th e y r e l a t e , such as a re o ffe re d by th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s , may v a l i d l y be p ro v id e d . Y e t,to cla im t h a t th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s p ro v id e a s u f f i c i e n t
e x p la n a tio n of th e b e h a v io u r o f o b je c ts in th e w o rld w ould seem to su g g e st t h a t th e s e o th e r e x p la n a tio n s a re re d u n d a n t, an d hence n o t v a lid a d d itio n s to ones o f f e r e d by th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s . T h is d i f f i c u l t y may be av o id ed in tlic fo llo w in g way. What may be pro p o sed i s th a t th e s u f f ic ie n c y c la im o f p h y s ic a l sc ie n c e e x p la n a tio n s be tr e a te d n o t a s an a b s o lu te o n e , b u t a s one r e l a t i v e to a c e r ta in s p e c if ic a tio n of e v e n ts in th e w o rld , a s p e c if ic a tio n t h a t i s , how ever, th e fu n d am en tal one, th e w o rld b e in g as i t is , and w hich th e re b y s t i l l g iv e s c le a r s e n s e to th e id e a t h a t e v e ry th in g i s j u s t m a tte r and i t s m o tio n s. T hus i t may be arg u ed t h a t how ever e ls e th e y may be d e s c rib e d , a l l o c c u rre n c e s in th e w o rld a re re a rra n g e m e n ts of s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s . T h is s p e c if ic a tio n i s , f u r th e r , fu n d am en tal in t h a t i t i s th e s p e c if ic a tio n in v i r t u e of w hich a l l o th e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t h a t v a li d l y a p p ly t o e v e n ts in th e w o rld , such as th e f u n c tio n a l r o le ones of th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , do a p p ly . The w o rld b e in g w h a t i t i s , w ith o u t th e re b e in g o c c u rre n c e s th a t are d escrib ab le a s re a rra n g e m e n ts of s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s , th e re w ould be no e v e n ts t o d e s c rib e in th e s e or any o th e r te rm s . And th e
- ‘¿G
-in p r i n c i p l e , w h ich s u f f ic e f o r th e o c c u rre n c e of a l l s p a t i a l re a rra n g e m e n ts t h a t ta k e p la c e .
Im p o rta n t p ro g re s s h as now been made to w ard s a d e f i n i t i o n of m a te r ia lis m t h a t i s l e s s am biguous th a n O l, b u t b e fo re t h i s
can b e p r e s e n te d ,f u r th e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n i s n eed ed r e g a rd in g th e s u f f ic ie n c y of th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s . A t p r e s e n t,th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s a re in c o m p le te , e v o lv in g , f i e l d s of s tu d y . T here re m a in s much t h a t ta k e s p la c e w ith in t h e i r dom ain t h a t i s n o t y e t a d e q u a te ly u n d e rsto o d ,a n d th e r e i s no g u a ra n te e t h a t our p r e s e n t u n d e rs ta n d in g o f phenom ena a s p ro v id e d by th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s w i l l n o t u n d erg o r e v i s i o n . I t th u s seems t h a t n e ith e r in th e in v e n to ry n o r e x p la n a to ry sen se can p re s e n t-d a y p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e be cla im e d to be a s u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t of th e s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e of th e w o rld . Sm art in f a c t acknow ledges a c o rre s p o n d in g p ro b lem f o r h i s p h y s ic s -b a s e d d e f i n i t i o n w h en ,as we saw e a r l i e r , he s p e a k s of m a te r ia lis m a s th e th e o ry t h a t th e r e i s n o th in g in th e w o rld o v er and above th o s e e n t i t i e s t h a t a re p o s tu la te d by p r e s e n t- d a y p h y s ic s , o r th o s e e n t i t i e s t h a t w i l l be p o s tu la te d by a f u tu r e and m ore a d e q u a te p h y s ic s . W hat he i s sa y in g i s t h a t a t some s ta g e in th e d ev elo p m en t of p h y sic s i t w i l l o f f e r a s u f f i c i e n t a c c o u n t of th e w o rld , even i f t h a t s ta g e h as n o t y e t b een re a c h e d . P h y sic s i s , f o r h im ,p o te n tia lly s u f f ic ie n t,a n d m a te r ia lis m a l l i e s i t s e l f t o t h i s b e l i e f . C ould we n o t th e n f o llo w S m a rt's exam ple and sa y a n a lo g o u sly t h a t th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s a re p o t e n t i a l l y s u f f i c i e n t ?
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-th a t p re s e n t-d a y p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s do n o t m e n tio n , and w hich a re a t th e c e n tre of p h ilo s o p h ic a l i n t e r e s t in w h e th e r m a te ria lis m may be d e fen d ed , w ill l a t e r be em braced by them . I f a d e f in iti o n com m itted to t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s en d o rse d , th e s e n s ib le c o u rse i s n o t to arg u e m a tte rs o u t now b u t, i t w ould seem , to w a it and s e e . However, i t may a ls o be a s k e d w h eth er i t i s re a s o n a b le to p o s tu la te a s ta g e in th e develop m ent o f s c ie n c e s when th e y a re co m p leted . C e rta in ly t h i s w ill be th e ca se i f th e r e a re a d e f i n i t e num ber of d e te rm in a te t r u th s ab o u t th e w o rld w a itin g t o be d is c o v e re d , f o r th e n co m p letio n of a s c ie n c e w ill be sim p ly a m a tte r of d is c o v e rin g a l l th e t r u th s t h a t r e l a t e t o i t s p a r t i c u l a r dom ain. R ut w h eth er
2
t h i s commonsense view i s s u s ta in a b le i s a m a tte r of some c o n tro v e rs y . T here i s in any ev en t a lw a y s th e problem of how we may know t h a t a l l th e t r u t h s have been d is c o v e re d , so th e r e c e n t a d v ic e to w a it and see over th e e n t i t i e s th a t p r e s e n t- d a y p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e does n o t re c o g n is e co uld d e fe r any d e b ate o v e r m a te ria lis m i n d e f i n i t e l y .
To g e t s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m o ff th e g roun d a s a th e o ry em bodying s p e c if ic o n to lo g ic a l com m itm ents t h a t may be th e b a s is of c u rr e n t d e b a t e ,i t m u s t , i t seem s, r e f e r to th e in v e n to ry of e n t i t i e s o ffe re d by p r e s e n t- d a y p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s , and s im ila r ly fo r any d e b ate over s p e c i f i c e x p la n a to ry c la im s . However, in s te a d of a s c r ib in g to m a te r ia lis m th e b a ld cla im t h a t , a s p r e s e n tly c o n s titu te d ,th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s a re in v e n to ry and e x p la n a to ry - s u f f ic ie n t ac co u n ts of th e w o rld , w hich i s , f o r re a s o n s in d ic a te d above, j u s t as u n te n a b le a s r e f e r r in g to some f u tu r e s t a t e of
28
-a l t e r n -a t i v e i s th e h y p o th e s is th -a t t h e p h y s ic -a l s c ie n c e s -a c c o u n t i s s u f f i c i e n t , e x c e p t w here i t i s re c o g n is e d w ith in th e d i s c i p l i n e s co n cern ed t h a t s u f f ic ie n c y h as n o t b e e n a c h ie v e d . T hus, f o r ex am p le , w h ile th e b e h a v io u r of DNA m o le c u le s i s re c o g n is e d w ith in s c ie n c e to be in c o m p le te ly u n d e rsto o d , i t i s n o t a m a tte r of c o n tro v e rs y t h a t g e n e s, th e tr a n s m itte r s of h e r e d ita r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a re DNA m o le c u le s . S im ila rly , w h ile in th e f i e l d of fu n d a m e n ta l p a r t i c l e p h y sic s t h e
q u e s tio n re m a in s open a s to w hat th e u ltim a te c o n s titu e n ts of m a tte r a r e , i t i s n e v e r th e le s s a c c e p te d t h a t a t one le v e l in th e d e c o m p o sitio n of m a tte r th e r e a re p ro to n s , n e u tro n s and e le c tr o n s . The p r o p o s a l to r e f e r to th e h y p o th e tic a l s u f f ic ie n c y of p re s e n t p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e , e x c e p t w here th e d is c ip lin e s c o n c e rn e d re c o g n is e in s u f f ic ie n c y w ith in th e m ,m ig h t be c r i t i c i s e d as b e in g an ad hoc m anouvre t h a t
s i t s b a d ly w ith our e a r l i e r c r i t i c i s m of Cornman. In i t s d e fe n c e , how ever, i t can be s a id to r e f l e c t a c o n v ic tio n th a t i s c e n tr a l t o s c i e n t i f i c m a te ria lis m : nam ely, t h a t th e re i s no m eans of a r r i v i n g a t b e l i e f s c o n c e rn in g th e s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e w o rld and i t s
tr a n s f o r m a tio n s t h a t i s p r e f e r a b le t o t h a t p ro v id e d by th e a p p r o p r ia te s c ie n c e s , and w here th e re i s c o n f l i c t w ith o th e r p e rs p e c tiv e s on th e w o rld i t i s th o s e ,a n d n o t th e s c i e n t i f i c o n e s ,th a t sh o u ld f o r t h a t re a s o n be w ith d raw n as f a l s e . A l s o , i t i s by no means o b v io u s t h a t many of th e b e l i e f s em bodied in th e p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s a t p r e s e n t w i l l in th e f u tu r e be o v e rth ro w n . (Much depends h e re upon how th e
2g
h is to r y of s c ie n c e comes to be w r i t t e n , as R o rty h as o b s e rv e d ).
