TLAN 101 Grammar Handbook

TLAN 101: CLASSICAL TIBETAN

GRAMMAR HANDBOOK

This course covers the main elements of classical Tibetan grammar with the aim of bringing the students to the stage where they have sufficient knowledge to continue learning the language by reading and translating basic texts of the Buddhist literature.

The emphasis is placed on integrating the most important points of grammar in a short period of time (about two months). The presentation tries to stay clear, to avoid too many details, and is therefore far from being exhaustive or complete. The complexities related to the traditional Tibetan presentation (often confusing for westerners at the initial stage of the learning process) are also temporarily avoided.

Once the material of this course has been covered and integrated, students will then consolidate and expand their knowledge of vocabulary and grammar by translating and discussing increasingly complex Tibetan texts.

After having gained sufficient proficiency in Tibetan grammar through practical application, the students are encouraged to deepen their knowledge of the language by studying Tibetan grammar from a Tibetan perspective, as it is presented in the foundational treatises of Thonmi Sambhota (sum cu pa and rtags 'jug pa)

TABLE OF CONTENT

LESSON1 Nouns 1 Adjectives 3 Compound words 3 Demonstrative pronouns 5 Indefinite particles 6 Plural particles 7 Numbers 7

Order of a nominal group 8

Lists 9

LESSON2

Introduction to the particles 14

Personal pronouns 15

The connective particles 16

1. Relationships in which the connective particle can be translated as "of" 17

2. Connecting an adjective to a noun 19

3. Apposition 20

The emphasizing particle 21

The use of honorifics 21

LESSON3

Introduction to the verbs 27

Linking verbs 29

Existential verbs 31

Transitive and intransitive verbs 34

The terminating particles 39

LESSON4

The agentive/instrumental particles 45

1. The agent of a transitive verb 45

2. The instrument of an action 46

3. Adverb 47

Special structure of some intransitive verbs 48

Imperative mood 50

Nominalized verbs 53

LESSON5

La don particles 60

1. The direct object of some transitive verbs 61

2. Location 62

3. Purpose/Benefit 64

4. Adverb 67

The concessive particles 70

The "and/or" particles 70

LESSON6

The source particles 76

1. Source/origin 76

2. Comparison 78

3. Exclusion and inclusion/isolation 79

Relative clauses 80

Interrogative and indefinite pronouns 85

LESSON7

The auxiliary verbs 91

Verbal uses of particles 96

1. The connective particles 96

2. The concessive particles 97

3. The agentive/instrumental particles 98

4. The reason/purpose particle 98

5. The particle dang 99

6. The particles cing/zhing/shing 100

7. The source particles 101

8. The La don particles 102

9. The conditional particle 103

The continuative particles 104

1

LESSON 1

Tibetan sentences consist of a string of syllables ( "between the dots") placed next to each other and separated by dots ( ).

→ →→

→ All the elements found in a sentence can be divided into two broad categories: 1) words

(nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, and so forth) and 2) particles. Unlike the words, the particles have no meaning on their own but are used to indicate the syntactic relationships between the various words of the sentence as well as other grammatical functions1. The uses of the particles are at the center of focus of Tibetan grammar and will be introduced in the next lessons.

→ →→

→ Some words consist of a single syllable but most of them are made of two or sometimes

more syllables, each of them usually having its own individual meaning. Tibetan sentences are written continuously, without any space between the words or any punctuation marks that would indicate where the words end. The only punctuation marks are the dots ( ) that separate the syllables and the strokes ( ). A stroke is a vertical line placed at the end of a syllable, instead of the dot. It has no real punctuation significance. Although it is frequently seen at the end of sentences, it is not limited to that position and should therefore not be systematically regarded as a period. A stroke is placed in a text to induce a certain rhythm in the recitation (Tibetan texts are traditionally read aloud). It shows the place where the reader marks a short pause to take his breath. Double strokes are used to indicate the end of larger sections and four strokes

_{the end of a chapter or an entire text.}

→ →→

→ Due to the syllabic nature of Tibetan and its lack of punctuation marks to separate words,

one of the major difficulties for beginners is to be able to identify the words within a sentence, i.e. to group the syllables into words. This initial difficulty is easily overcome with experience, by building up one's vocabulary, learning the way words are formed, and how sentences are structured. This first lesson focuses on the formation of nouns and on the different possible elements that surround the noun in a nominal group.

NOUNS

Nouns consist of one (or sometimes more) syllable(s) that is either alone or combined with one of the six ending particles

1

2

Examples of nouns without ending particle: Dharma

path

horse

Tibet

Yoga

Examples of nouns with ending particle: sun

house

happiness, bliss

virtue

hand monastery disciple, student essence

• When these six ending particles ( _{are the most common) are joined to a syllable to form} a noun, they become an integral part of that word without usually adding any meaning to it. In some cases however, they can create new nouns by adding a sense of agent/association or gender.

→ →→

→ Agent/association: The ending particle indicates someone who practices/is associated with the preceding syllable.

Dharma

Dharma practitioner horse

horse rider

Tibet

Tibetan yoga

yogin

Buddha

Buddhist

→ →→

→ Gender: Tibetan nouns do not indicate the gender (they are neither masculine nor

feminine) except in some cases where their gender is specified by the addition of the ending particles

(feminine) and

(masculine).

yogin

yoginī king

queen god

goddess son

daughter → →→

→ It is however not the case that all nouns ending in

are feminine! As an example, the following nouns end in or but are neither masculine nor feminine.

3

guru

Middle Way (Madhyamaka)

sun student festival

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are formed in the same way as nouns2 but there are only a few of them that are not associated with one of the six ending particles

supreme

!

all

new

"

old

bad, evil

sacred, holy

#

good, excellent

big, great

hot red

#

profound, deep

$

cold

%

former, past

→ →→

→ Adjectives are usually placed right after the noun they modify3.

!

all Dharmas

red monastery

#

excellent Dharma practitioner

great bliss

hot sun

bad student

"

old house

new student

COMPOUND WORDS:

Multi-syllable words are formed by joining two nouns, two adjectives, or a noun and an adjective together. In Tibetan, each syllable usually has its own meaning. The parts of these compound words combine in different ways. For example, they can be synonyms (to emphasize the meaning intended), opposites (to indicate an abstract quality), bring a new meaning to the compound, or one part can modify the other:

2

It will quickly become evident that the categories of nouns, adjectives, and verbs often overlap in Tibetan, and words can move from one of these categories to the other according to the context in which they are used. For example, many words can function both as nouns and adjectives. For example, can mean both "virtue" (noun) and "virtuous" (adjective). Similarly, & can mean "noble being" or "noble" (adjective). Many nouns are also derived from verbs (see lesson 4).

3

Adjectives sometimes also precede the noun they modify. In that case, they are linked to the noun by a connective particle (see lesson 2).

4

desire ( ) +attachment ( ) = attachment (synonyms)

' (

exertion ( ' ) + effort ( ( ) = diligence (synonyms)

)

big ( ) + small () ) = size (two opposites indicate a range of possibilities that suggests the abstract quality "size")

#

good + bad = quality

*

center + circle = ma ala

+

medicine + house = hospital

, '

star + calculation = astrology

-

mind + possessing particle = sentient beings (mind possessors)4

. /

heart + lord = compassion (lord of the hearts)

0 /

stone + lord = diamond, Vajra (lord of the stones)

knowing + supreme = wisdom (the supreme knowledge)

1

vehicle + great = great vehicle, Mahāyāna (often contracted as

₁

)

2

symbol + great = great symbol, Mahāmudrā (often contracted as

₂

)

→ →→

→ An important feature of Tibetan is the abbreviation of compound words and the omission

of other parts of the language. Many compounds consisting of two syllables are formed by omitting particles (usually the ending particles

, but any particle can be omitted) or even parts of words. Contracting sentences by abbreviating words and/or omitting words

and particles is extremely frequent in Tibetan, especially in poetry where each line of the

text has to be composed in a specific number of syllables. Here are a few examples of contracted compounds and lists of words:

4

- is a particle that shows the possession of the preceding noun. It can also turn nouns into adjectives. For

example, 3 "kindness" followed by the possessing particle - means "possessing kindness" or "kind" (adjective). Note that - "sentient beings" is a word that is understood to be plural although it is devoid of plural particle.

5

1

inferior ( ) vehicle (1 )

=

1

4

the great ( ) perfection (₄ ) =

4

5

6

White ( 6 ) Tārā (5 ) =

5

6

* 7

Dharma ( ) body (7 ) (Skt. Dharmakāya) =

7

5

1

Śrāvakas ( 1 ) and Pratyekabuddhas ( ) = 6

8

Sa sāra ( ) and Nirvā a (8 ) =

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

The two demonstrative pronouns are "this" and "that". They are placed after the noun (or the adjective if there is one) they modify.

this path

that house

this happiness

that horse

6

that white monastery

this new student

#

this excellent guru

that bad queen

5

The connective particle * _{will be explained in lesson 2.}

6

6

*

this great ma ala

this great yogin

→ →→

→ There is no word in Tibetan to express the article "the", but these two demonstrative

pronouns are sometimes used in a similar way. and are also used to express the pronouns she/he/it (the personal pronouns will be covered in lesson 2).

INDEFINITE PARTICLES:

Just like there is no article "the", there is no indefinite particle "a" or "an" used systematically in Tibetan. However,

-

9

(derived from the word

-

_{"one") are sometimes used in} that role. Like the demonstrative pronouns, the indefinite particles are placed after the noun (or the adjective if there is one) they modify. The spelling of these particles varies according to the final letter of the previous syllable7:

After the suffix letters

, the spelling is

-After the suffix letters

(or no suffix), the spelling is

9

After the suffix letter , the spelling is

9

a path

9

a horse

a Buddha

-

a wisdom

"

9

an old monastery 7

All the particles can be divided into two groups: the dependent ( 9 - ) and the independent (

- ) particles. The independent particles always keep the same spelling. On the other hand, the spelling of the dependent particles changes according to the last letter of the preceding syllable. The spelling rules for these particles will be presented gradually in the next lessons.

7

9

a new house

PLURAL PARTICLES

The two main particles8 used to indicate the plural are and . Both can be used but is slightly more common. They are placed after the noun, adjective, and demonstrative. Just as it is the case for the gender, Tibetan nouns are also ambiguous regarding the

number. A word without plural particle is not necessarily singular and can be understood to

be plural by relying on the context. The addition of a plural particle, however, makes the plural number obvious.

Dharmas

vases

Sūtras

those

those

these

these

these red monasteries

the new students

#

the excellent gurus

NUMBERS

→ →→

→ The cardinal numbers are placed after the noun and adjective they modify, but before the

demonstrative pronoun (there is no plural particle right after a cardinal number)

8

8

-

one

two

:

three

9

four

;

five

<

six

=

seven

eight

>

nine

?

ten

hundred

one thousand

→ →→

→ The ordinal numbers (except for "first") are formed by adding the particle to the cardinal numbers.

1st

2d

:

3d

9

4th

;

5th

<

6th

=

7th

8th

>

9th

?

10th

100th

→ →→

→ The particle added to a cardinal number indicates the group taken together.

the (group of) two

:

the (group of) three

?

the (group of) ten

ORDER OF A NOMINAL GROUP

A nominal group is a noun followed by the different elements that can modify it. A nominal group forms a "building block" within a sentence and it has to be taken together as an

inseparable unit (see lesson 2). When all the elements of a nominal group are present (most

of the times, only some of them are), the order is the following:

Noun + Adjective(s) + Number + Demonstrative + Plural particle

:

those three new monasteries

>

those nine supreme yoginīs

#

9

these four excellent students

6

those two white vases

→ →→

→ The adjectives

!

and

1

-

"all" can also be added at the end of this list:

6

;

1

-

all these five white horses

9

LISTS

The particle is commonly used to separate different members of a list (simple nouns or

entire nominal groups). It is equivalent to the English word "and"9. It is usually placed after each member of the list, but it is often omitted (after each member or just after some of them).

virtue ( ) and non-virtue ( )

1

method (1 ) and wisdom ( )

=

:

Buddha ( ), Dharma ( ), and Sa gha ( _{= )}

@

A B

#

generosity (@ ), discipline (A B ), and patience ( # )

:

9

the first, second, third, and fourth bhūmis ( )

1

1

%

1

:

Hinayāna (1 _{), Mahāyāna (1}

), and Mantrayāna ( _{% 1} )

the red monasteries and the eight black houses

#

:

this excellent guru and those three new students

9

The particle is also frequently seen in association with a series of words indicating possession (E -), relationship ( F ), separation (F _{), etc. In these cases, it is better translated as "with" or "from":}

E endowed with ...

- together with ...

F together with, in relation with, associated with ...

F free from ...

As it is the case for all particles (see lesson 2), refers to what precedes it:

E endowed with glory ( )

- together with the retinue ( )

G F free from mental constructs (G )

10

→ →→

→ A plural particle placed after a list doesn't necessarily mean that the members of the list (or

the last member) are plural. It usually just means that the list consists of many singular things. It should therefore be left untranslated.

→ →→

→ Lists frequently end by a number totaling its members. This number usually refers to the

list as a whole and doesn't qualify the last member of the list only. It can be left untranslated too.

→ →→

→ The particle can be placed at the end of a list or a quote to indicate that the list (or a quote) should continue. It corresponds to the English expressions "and so forth", "and so on". The full form is , but it is often abbreviated as

@

A B

#

generosity, discipline, patience, and so forth

9 H I J

desire ( ), anger (9 H ), ignorance ( I J ), etc.

)

earth ( ), water () ), fire ( ), and so forth

#

:

the three excellent yogins, the hundred

11

Vocabulary list 1

Buddha

Dharma

=

Sa gha

)

enlightenment, (Skt. bodhi)

mind

cyclic existence (Skt. sa sāra)

virtue

H

evil deed

happiness

K

%

suffering

Sūtra

path

monastery

guru

student, disciple

supreme

big, great

low, inferior

#

good, excellent

bad, evil

new

"

old

sacred, holy

#

profound, deep

many, a lot

12

EXERCICES:

1) Memorize the words of the vocabulary list 1 (with the correct spelling!), the cardinal numbers (1 to 10), and the order of a nominal group.

2) Translate into English

#

#

1

-

#

K

%

L I #

!

9

=

#

1

-

#

:

!

9

>

1

-

1

)

#

<

1

-

9

9

!

H

#

9

1

-

1

13

H

1

-1

1

0 / 1

:

:

"

L I #

!

M

N

:

=

1

-

#

N

Extra vocabulary:

L I

(excellent) quality

man

)

water

empowerment, initiation

1

method

1

vehicle, yana

M

/ /

N

Tashi, Tsering, Dawa (personal Tibetan names)

N

moon

0 / 1

Vajrayāna

3) Write in Tibetan

This old monastery

These two profound Sūtras Those five new students All those ten white horses A red house

The second Buddha

Many supreme paths and so forth

Five great monasteries and all those old houses The king, the queen, and so forth

This excellent yoginī, those new Dharma practitioners, and so on The (group of) five sacred gurus

14

LESSON 2

INTRODUCTION TO THE PARTICLES

The particles form a complex linguistic category that includes many different elements.

→ →→

→ The particles are always placed right after the words they modify. This is the opposite

of English where the particles precede these words (prepositions). The Tibetan particles should therefore better be understood as postpositions. For example, in the English sentences "he makes offerings to the guru" and "she works in Nepal", the particles are placed before the nouns to indicate respectively the recipient of the offering and the location where the work takes place. In Tibetan, the particles are always placed after the words they modify. The way to express these recipient and location would therefore read: "the guru to" and "Nepal in".

→ →→

→ The particles mark entire nominal groups (or lists), not just their last element.

→ →→

→ It is important to keep in mind that, like most of the words, particles can be omitted in

Tibetan, especially in texts written in verses.

→ →→

→ Particles are traditionally divided into two groups: the case marking particles and the

non-case marking particles. Unlike many of the non-non-case particles, the non-case particles are used to

indicate the main functions and relationships (agent, objects, purpose, location, etc.) between the different words of a sentence10. They are traditionally presented according to eight cases, based on a similar presentation found in Sanskrit grammar. The four particles

10

Non-case particles form the biggest category and regroup all the particles that are not one of the four case marking particles. Some of them are integral parts of words (such as the ending and plural particles) while others are used to indicate "secondary" grammatical functions. We will see that the absence of particle is as important

as particles to show grammatical functions.

The "case" particles are called that way because of their similarity with the case-endings (declensions) found in Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages. The traditional Tibetan classification into eight cases and the corresponding particles that mark them are listed below. The names of the cases given first are the Latin terms conventionally followed by Sanskritists. The names given in bracket are closer to the actual Tibetan names:

1st case: nominative (nominative) no particle 2d case: accusative (objective)

3d case: instrumental (agentive) * O L 4th case: dative (beneficial and purposive)

5th case: ablative (source)

6th case: genitive (connective) * O L 7th case: locative (locative)

15

marking these eight cases are the connective particles, the agentive/instrumental particles,

the source particles, and the particles. Their study is one of the most important

aspects of Tibetan grammar. However, to understand Tibetan texts, it is not necessary to identify systematically which case the particles encountered belongs to. The study of the case particles according to their traditional classification in eight cases can be a bit confusing at the beginner level.

→ →→

→ The approach presented in this course focuses on identifying any particle and

understanding their main usages. Each of the particles will be presented in turn, with the

emphasis placed on the case particles, the most important ones to understand the basic structures of Tibetan sentences. Until lesson 6, we will focus on the roles that particles play

within a sentence. The last lesson will then focus on the roles that they play between two sentences. Before presenting the connective particles, let us first have a look at personal

pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Many words are used in Tibetan for personal pronouns but it suffices for now to remember the most common ones. A distinction is made between honorific and non-honorific forms.

1st person: and (literary)11 "I"

2d person:

P

and

P

(honorific) "you"

3d person: / and (honorific) "he/she"12

→ →→

→ The plural of personal pronouns is formed by adding a plural particle to their singular

form. The plural particles used in classical Tibetan are

,

as well as

-

and

Q ,

two particles mainly associated with these pronouns.

1st person:

-

and

Q

_"we"

2d person:

P

and

P

_"you"

3d person:

/ and

"they"

11

is a more classical form of the personal pronoun . The personal pronoun shouldn't be confused with the usage of the same word (noun) in a philosophical context, where it refers to the "Self" or "Ego".

12

is the honorific form for both "he" and "she". Keep also in mind that the demonstrative pronoun

16

→ →→

→ Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding the particles and 13 to the personal pronouns.

oneself (myself, yourself, himself, etc)

and myself

P

and

P

yourself

/ and

himself/herself

THE CONNECTIVE PARTICLES (

* O L )

The connective particles are used within sentences to indicate various types of relationships

between nominal groups14, adjectives and pronouns. They are usually placed right between

the words they connect. The connective particles have different forms according to the suffix letter of the preceding syllable.

After the suffix letters

, the spelling is

*

After the suffix letters , the spelling is

After the suffix letters

, the spelling is

O

When there is no suffix or the suffix letter , the spelling is

or

L

15

The connective particles indicate a wide range of relationships that are traditionally subdivided into many categories and sub-categories that tend to overlap. For the ease of study, the various usages of the connective particles are subsumed here under three main groups:

13

emphasizes the word that comes before it (the thing itself) but it can also be used to create abstract nouns. For example, "empty" followed by the particle = "emptiness" and "Buddha" =

"Buddhahood".

14

Nominal groups include simple nouns.

15

is joined to the syllable devoid of suffix while L forms a separate syllable. This technique for creating a new syllable is often used in poetry where each line must have a specific number of syllables. For example, followed by a connective particle can be written (one syllable) or L (two syllables). If the word ends in , the > is placed directly over the . For example 6 = 6

17

1.

Relationships in which the connective particle can be translated as "of":

This is the most frequent usage of the connective particles. It includes different types of

relationships traditionally presented as "relationship between an owner and a thing

possessed", "relationship between a place and its inhabitants", "relationship between a whole and its parts", and so on. The good news is that it is not necessary for beginners to be able to distinguish all these different categories in order to understand Tibetan sentences. For all the different types of relationships of this group, the connective particles can be translated by the English word "of", connecting the words from right to left. The translation follows this model:

A (nominal group/list or pronoun) +

*

/ /

O

// /

L

+ B (nominal group/list) = B of A

*

the teachings ( ) of the Buddha ( )

)

1

the vehicle (₁ ) of the bodhisattva ( ₎

)

S

the wisdom ( ) of the queen ( )16

*

people ( ) of Tibet ( )

T

the meaning ( ) of meditation ( _T )

*

O

the deities ( ) of the ma ala ( * )

* 7

the body (_{7 ) of Dharma (} )

U

!

all the religious traditions ( U ! ) of Tibetans ( ) and Indians ( )

6

S

#

the excellent guru ( # ) of the white monastery ( 6 )

16

This could alternatively be written L This applies to every instance where the connective particle is

18

- 1

- *

the supreme protector ( ) of all sentient beings

( _{- 1} - )

#

the oral instructions ( ) of that excellent Dharma practitioner ( _# )

the monastery ( ) of the guru and the students ( )

#

9

S

the rituals ( ) and sacred commitments ( _{S ) of the four} profound empowerments ( # 9 )

→ →→

→ _{The same model applies if there are several connective particles in a sentence (remember}

to connect from right to left)

"

SV

the jealousy (V ) of the owner ( ) of those many old houses ( _" )

W O

6

S

the teachings ( ) of the guru ( ) of the white monastery ( 6 ) of Nepal ( W )

→ →→

→ Possessive pronouns are formed by adding a connective particle to the personal pronouns

my guru (the guru of me)

my red house (the red house of me)

P *

#

your excellent disciple (the excellent disciple of you)

his great pride (the great pride of him)

-

6

:

our three white horses (the three white horses of us)

the monastery of my guru (the monastery of the guru of me)

→ →→

→ Although the connective particles can here be translated as "of", some other English

19

nevertheless possible to begin by translating the particle as "of", before adjusting the translation to the particular context (by common sense).

) *

the path ( ) of enlightenment ( _{) ) = the path to enlightenment}

= O

the space ( ) of the front ( = ) = the space in front

the offerings ( ) of the guru ( ). This is grammatically correct but "the offerings for the guru" could be more appropriate depending on the context.

2.

Connecting an adjective to a noun:

We saw in lesson 1 that adjectives usually follow directly the noun they modify. The (only) other possibility for an adjective to modify a noun is to precede it and to be joined to it by a connective particle. The model then becomes Adjective + Connective particle + Noun17.

This model is frequently seen in Tibetan sentences. Grammatically, both ways of combining a noun and an adjective are valid, but it seems that some adjectives always follow or always precede the noun they qualify. Moreover, when an adjective precedes a noun, the connective

particle between them (together with the ending particle of the adjective) is regularly omitted.

sacred ( ) Dharma ( ) often seen abbreviated as

#

S

profound (# ) path ( ) often seen abbreviated as

#

4

perfect (4 ) Buddha ( )

virtuous ( ) action ( )

Tibetan ( ) man ( )18

17

For example, there are two grammatical ways for the adjective 6 "white" to modify the noun "Dharma": 6 or 6 S = the white Dharma (they can respectively be abbreviated as 6

and 6 ).

18

20

3.

Apposition:

An apposition is a situation where two or more nominal groups are describing the same

thing by using different words. The nouns in apposition can be synonyms, or one of them

can introduce complementary information regarding the other. A connective particle can be placed before them.

/

the lord of death ( )19, Yama ( / ) (the lord of death = Yama)

1

0 / 1

the supreme vehicle (1 ), Vajrayāna (0 / 1 )

* = '

the inner offering ( ), nectar ( = ' )

8

hell and so forth (₈ ), the lower realms ( )

→ →→

→ The (only) other possibility to express an apposition is simply to place the two nominal

groups equated next to each other, without any particle between them.

*

9

the teacher of the Dharma ( _* ), the fourth Buddha ( 9

)

= '

the inner offering ( ), nectar ( = ' )

Buddha ( ) Amitābha ( )

Concluding remarks for the connective particles:

→ →→

→ The connective particles connect together entire nominal groups/lists. It is crucial to

remember that these connected groups/lists have to be taken together as inseparable units.

→ →→

→ When you encounter a connective particle in a text, identify its usage in the order presented in this lesson: 1) Begin by translating the connective particle as "of", connecting

the words on its both sides from right to left. If it doesn't work, 2) the word that precedes the particle might be an adjective. If it still doesn't work, try 3) the apposition.

19

As an example of word abbreviation, is a contraction of , the lord/owner ( ) of death ( ₎

21

→ →→

→ Remember that all the particles can be omitted. Among the case marking particles, the connective particle is the most frequently omitted one.

→ →→

→ Another important function of the connective particles is to connect a relative clause to a

noun. This usage will be covered in lesson 6. There are also a few secondary functions that will be introduced later.

THE EMPHASIZING PARTICLE

The particle is used to emphasize a word or a group of words. It doesn't give any information concerning the grammatical function of the words it emphasizes. The particle merely draws the attention of the reader on the words that precede it by stressing their

importance in the sentence. It can be translated by "regarding", "as for", or "concerning",

but it is often better to leave it untranslated.

as for him,/ he ...

)

1

-

(regarding) all those bodhisattvas, ...

6

:

= L

(concerning) the three jewels ( _{6 :} ) (they) are (L ) the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sa gha20.

→ →→

→ The particle is also frequently used in poetry to fill up the number of syllables required

in a line. It adds no meaning to the translation and can be ignored.

THE USE OF HONORIFICS

Tibetan language has different forms of speech according to the person it addresses or refers to. The ordinary form is used to address or refer to someone of equal or lower status while the honorific form is to address or refer to someone of higher status. The honorific form of speech is very important in Tibetan (especially in the spoken language) and many words (nouns, verbs, pronouns) have both an honorific and an ordinary form. These forms have to be assimilated gradually and it suffices for now to be aware that this distinction exists. Here are a few examples of words together with their honorific forms:

20

22 Ordinary form Honorific form

Pronouns:

P P

you

/

he/she

Nouns:

&

L

father

W

mother

Y

son

U

7

body

:

speech

/

L Z

mind

head

2

hand

[

9

foot Verbs:

L

to be

\

to stay, abide, live

]

to do

23

Vocabulary list 2

6

:

the three jewels (litt. the three "rare" and "supreme")

)

bodhisattva

-

sentient beings

emptiness

space, sky

^

cause

F

effect, fruition

8

nirvā a

*

ma ala

0 /

vajra

action, karma

afflictive emotion

desire, attachment

9 H

anger, aversion

I J

ignorance, stupidity

L I

(excellent) quality

. /

compassion

wisdom, discriminating knowledge

1

method, skilful means

teaching

&

noble/noble being (Skt. ārya)

8

hell being

L _

hungry ghost (Skt. preta)

= $

animal

24

:

the three lower realms

1

:

the three higher realms

offering

India

W

Nepal

25

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the three main types of relationships that the connective particles indicate, the personal pronouns, and the words of the vocabulary list 2. If you can, memorize also the words and their honorific forms presented in this lesson.

2) _{Translate into English (focus on the role played by the connective particles by} proceeding in the order described in this lesson. Remember that nominal groups are inseparable units that have to be taken together)

)

*

O

*

L I

4

*

&

L I

! O `

-

&

1

* F

!

)

#

S

: O

- 1

-

. /

#

S

O

1

1

&

2

I

2

I

1

:

26

6

Sa 1

- * L I

#

SL I O ^

O

U

S

6

: O #

S

(

6

Extra vocabulary:

4

perfect, complete

`

source, origin

&

level

1

liberation oral instruction

2

outer

I

flower butter lamp

a

monk

U

religion

(

spiritual accomplishment (siddhi)

Tsering (personal name)

3) Write in Tibetan (remember that the spelling of the connectives particles depend on the suffix of the preceding syllable)

The qualities of those three gurus

The source of great bliss

The unity (

b c

) of method and wisdom

The level of liberation of the greater vehicle (Mahāyāna), Buddhahood

The profound methods of Vajrayāna (

_{0 / 1}

) Those many monasteries of India, Tibet, and Nepal

All the qualities of the guru of the red monastery

His great compassion

27

LESSON 3

INTRODUCTION TO THE VERBS

Tibetan verbs are called

S

"words of action". They are formed by adding the ending particles or 21 to one or sometimes several syllables indicating an action. The study of the verbs constitutes, with the study of the case marking particles, the main concern of Tibetan grammar. The verbs determine what the structure of the sentence (the type of particles - or absence of particle - that will be used) will be. For that reason, the verb is always the first

thing to look at when translating a sentence from Tibetan. Here are a few important

generalities concerning the verbs:

→ →→

→ The verb is always placed after everything else (subject, objects, adverbs, complements,

etc), at the very end of the sentence. Although some arrangements are more common than others22, the order of the words in a sentence is relatively free since the function of the words is clearly indicated by the particles (or the absence of particle) that follow them. Nevertheless, the verb always appears at the end. Moreover, unlike most of the other words, particles, and the linking verb

L

23_{, verbs are never omitted.}

→ →→

→ In classical Tibetan, a verb does not provide any information concerning the person and

the number. The same verb form is used for the 1st, 2d, and 3d person singular and

plural. Similarly, verbs are ambiguous regarding the active and passive voice. Verbs can

often equally be translated in an active or in a passive voice.

→ →→

→ A verb ending with the particles or is the infinitive form of the verb24, the one that appears, for example, when they are listed in a dictionary. When they are used within a

sentence, the verbs lose these particles and appear only in their "root" form.

→ →→

→ There are three tenses (

=

:

) in Tibetan: the past ( ), the present (

d

), and the future ( ), with the addition of the imperative mood (

7

S

). Some verbs have the same tense form for the three tenses and the imperative mood while others have two, three, or four different forms. There is no complete set of rules to determine systematically all the different tense forms of the verbs, and this topic is very complex and can be

21

comes after the suffix letters or after a syllable devoid of suffix letter.

22

For example, the order Subject + Objects + Verb is more common, but the subject and objects can exchange their position without there being any ambiguity in the translation.

23

This will be explained further in this lesson.

24

28

overwhelming for beginning (and advanced) students. There are nevertheless some recurring patterns that can gradually be recognized. The idea is to begin by slowly familiarizing oneself with the tenses of the verbs as they are encountered in sentences, then to start memorizing them by focusing on the most important ones. Here are a few examples of verbs having, one, two, three, or four tense forms:

One tense form verbs:

Present Past Future Imperative

To stay, dwell To know

To see

1

1

1

To understand

Two tense forms verbs:

Present Past Future Imperative

To produce

e

e

e

e

To enter

c

\

c

\

To teach

To sit

H

H

H

H

Three tense forms verbs:

Present Past Future Imperative

To offer

f

f

To explain

To write

F

F

F

F

To destroy

g

Four tense forms verbs:

Present Past Future Imperative

To do

To fall

&

&

To look at

d

d

d

d

29

→ →→

→ If the form of a verb is the same for different tenses:

1) An auxiliary verb can be joined to the main verb to clarify its tense (see lesson 7).

2) If the tense form of the verb is ambiguous and if no auxiliary verbs are there to clarify it, the tense must be determined from the context.

There are various ways of classifying the verbs into distinct categories. In this course, the verbs are divided into four groups: linking verbs, existential verbs, transitive verbs, and

intransitive verbs. It is crucial to keep in mind the sentence structures associated with these

four types of verbs.

LINKING VERBS (

L

)

A linking verb is a verb25 that "links" a subject to its description. It corresponds to the English verb "to be" like in the sentence

L

"he is Tibetan". Something is equated to something else. When

L

appears at the end of a sentence, you have to ask yourself: "what

equals what?"

→ →→

→ Neither the subject described ( ) nor its description ( ) are followed by any case

particle! However, the subject is often followed by the emphasizing particle that helps to distinguish it from its complement.

L

"(as for him,) he is Tibetan"

→ →→

→ As it was mentioned before, the word order is rather free in Tibetan. However, the only

sentences in which the word order is very important are sentences ending with the verb

L

, because neither the subject nor the complement has any case particle to indicate their function. Therefore, the subject always comes before its description. For example in the sentence

L

"he is Tibetan", the subject "he" is placed before its description "Tibetan". If the subject and complement would exchange their position, the meaning of the sentence would be different.

L

_{"the Tibetan is him". The emphasis would} shift from "he" to "the Tibetan".

25

30

→ →→

→

_L

is the only verb that is frequently (more often than not) omitted. When there is no verb at the end of a sentence, you know that the verb

L

must be missing. It is nevertheless understood to be there and that omission doesn't affect the translation.

→ →→

→ The negation of

L

is

L

or

A

no particle (or ) +

B

no particle + (

L

)

A = B

26

6

L

this monastery is white

#

L

that excellent guru is a yogin

1

-

all Dharmas (phenomena) are impermanent ( )

9 H

I J

L

desire, anger, ignorance, and so forth are afflictive emotions

6

:

=

the three jewels are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sa gha

P

L

you are not a new student

1

)

1

the greater vehicle (1 ) is the vehicle (1 ) of the bodhisattvas

P * & W

your homeland (& W ) is not Tibet

^ L

virtue is the cause of happiness

H

^ L

evil deeds are not the cause of happiness

those men are Indians ( )

26

A and B can be nominal groups, lists of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or nominal groups connected together

by a connective particle. These connected nominal groups also form inseparable units that have to be taken

31

L

this long ( ) path is not authentic (L )

K

% O

Q

sa sāra is a great ocean ( _{Q ) of suffering}

*

$

the teacher ( ) of the Dharma is the protector ( ) of beings ( _{$ )}

L

L I

. /

>

the qualities of an authentic (L ) Dharma practitioner are compassion, devotion ( _{> ), etc.}

@

L

my benefactor (@ ) is him/her

→ →→

→ The following verse consists of four famous statements,

* 2

9

" the four seals of the Dharma", that distinguish the Buddhist view from other views:

=

1

-

All conditioned things (

=

) are impermanent ( )

#

- 1

- K

%

All defiled things (

#

-

) are suffering

1

-

All phenomena are selfless ( )

8

9

Nirvā a is peace (

₉

)27

EXISTENTIAL VERBS (

L

)

An existential verb is a verb28 that indicates the existence of something/someone. It corresponds to the verbs "to exist" or "to be" like in the sentence

L

"there are monasteries" or "monasteries exist".

27

The fact that there are no verbs in this verse indicates that the verb L is missing (but understood to be present)

28

The main existential verb is L .Other verbs used as synonyms are = , (honorific), and (honorific). It is interesting to note that, strictly speaking, L and L are not regarded as verbs ( S "words of action") by Tibetans, since they don't indicate an action.

32

→ →→

→

_L

can be used to indicate the plain existence of something/someone, but it often shows the existence of someone/something somewhere. The place of existence is then marked (followed) by one of the particles29.

→ →→

→ The word order is not important. The negation of

L

is

A

no particle +

(B

)

+

L

A

is (exists)

(

in/on/at

B)

30

L

there are many Dharma practitioners

L

there are those new monasteries

W

L

I am in Nepal

W

L

I am in Nepal31

M

Tashi and Sonam are not in the temple ( )

a

@

L

the benefactor (@ ) of the monk (a ) is in Tibet

&

$

L

His/her parents (_{& ) are in the guesthouse ( $} )

the precious ( ) ornaments ( ) are not in the red monastery of the guru

$

e 1

-

*

L

(as for) all the deities, Dharma protectors ( e ), and dākinīs( $ ) (they) are in the ma ala32

29

The particles are a group seven particles, and six others ( i = : j ) having the same meaning. The functions of these particles will be covered in detail in lesson 5. To facilitate the learning process, only the particle will be used in the following examples to indicate the place of existence, but keep in mind that the other six particles can be used for that role too.

30

A and B can be nominal groups, lists, pronouns, or nominal groups connected together by a connective particle. A is sometimes followed by the emphasizing particle

31

The meaning is the same as the one of the previous sentence. Switching the word order in that way can nevertheless put an emphasis on the location. "In Nepal" (not anywhere else), I exist.

33

→ →→

→ The verb

L

is used to indicate the possession. The possessor (the place of possession) is indicated (followed) by the particle (and none of the other particles) and the thing possessed is in the nominative case (no particle). The word order is not important.

A

+

B

no particle +

L

A

has (possesses)

B

33

9 L

I have a big house

9

L

I have a big house

N

L

Dawa and Tsering have a new house

&

k

his/her parents (& ) do not have a lot of money ( k )

'

L I

L

his/her root (' ) guru has a lot of qualities

W

l

the king ( ) of this land (_{W ) does not have a big}

army ( l )

L

those yogins do not have many possessions (_L )

L

L I P

L

you have authentic (L ) qualities

Q

L

the owner ( ) of this shop ( _Q ) has a lot of wealth ( )

3 9 L

I have a question ( _{3 )}

32

Remember that it is often better to leave the emphasizing particle untranslated.

33

A and B can be nominal groups, lists, pronouns, or nominal groups connected together by a connective particle. A is a sentient being.

34

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS

We have seen that different sentence structures are associated with different types of verbs (four are presented in this course). The key point to determine the structure of a sentence is to be able to distinguish between transitive verbs (

1

S

) and intransitive verbs (

1

S

). The basic difference is that a transitive verb has an agent that acts on an object

that is different than itself. A transitive verb has an agent as well as a direct object. On the

other hand, an intransitive verb has a subject that does not act on an object that is

different than itself. There is no direct object. It is crucial to be able to identify these two

types of verbs without confusion!

→ →→

→ Examples of transitive verbs: "to eat", "to do", "to cut", "to say", and "to turn (to cause something else to turn)". These verbs imply that an agent acts on a separate object.

I eat an apple: agent = "I" direct object = "an apple" (the action of eating is transmitted from "I" to the apple)

He does his work: agent = "he" direct object = "his work"

The old man cuts a big tree: agent = "the old man" direct object = "a big tree" He says something nice: agent = "he" direct object = "something nice"

The monk turns his prayer wheel: agent= "the monk" direct object = "his prayer wheel"

→ →→

→ Examples of intransitive verbs: "to rise", "to be confused", "to go", "to become", and "to turn (by oneself)". The action of the subject happens on itself.

The sun rises: subject = "the sun" no object (the sun rises itself, it doesn't rise something) Sentient beings are confused: subject = "sentient beings" no object (they are confused themselves)

He goes to India: subject = "he" no object (he goes himself - "to India" is a locative complement, not a direct object)34

The wheel turns: subject = "the wheel" no object (the wheel turns itself)

A transitive verb has an agent marked (followed) by an agentive particle and a direct object

marked by the particle or by no particle at all. Most of the transitive verbs do not require

34

Verbs of motion (to go, to come, to get up, to leave, to enter, etc) are intransitive although they are volitional. No action is transmitted to an external object. Try not to confuse the location of motion verbs for a direct object!

35

their direct object to be marked by a , but others do35. The agentive particles will be described in detail in lesson 4, but their main function is already described here: to indicate the agent of a transitive verb. The spelling rules for the agentive particles are similar to those of the connecting particles:

After the suffix letters

, the spelling is

*

After the suffix letters , the spelling is

After the suffix letters

, the spelling is

O

When there is no suffix or the suffix letter , the spelling is

or

L

36

Agent

*

/ /

O

/

L

/

+ Direct object

/no particle

+ Transitive verb

37

*

Buddha taught ( ) the Dharma

!m #

I eat (# ) an apple (!m )

$

this enemy ( $ ) harms ( ) the Dharma practitioner

#

-

the excellent guru explains ( ) those treatises ( - )

$

that soldier ( ) kills ( ) the enemies ( _$ )

35

Knowing which transitive verbs require a for their direct object and which ones don't is something that comes from experience. However, it is useful to know that certain types of verbs, like the verbs of benefit/harm always have their direct object followed by the particle . A few transitive verbs have their direct objects sometimes marked by and sometimes not.

36

is joined directly to the syllable devoid of suffix and L _{forms a new syllable. For example,} !m # "I eat an apple" could be written L !m # . If the word ends in , replaces the suffix letter . For example

6 = 6

37

As usual (from now on, this won't be repeated anymore), the agent and objects can be nominal groups, lists, nominal groups connected by a connective particle, and so forth. A is usually a sentient being.

36

d

he/she looks (d ) at me

a

* . / T

the monks (_a ) of the monastery cultivate (_{T )} compassion

,

Tsering turns (, ) this great wheel (

)

*

$ ! 5

Buddha liberates (5 ) all beings ( $ )

E O

&

that qualified ( E ) guru benefits (& ) the

beginners ( )

P * 5 .

you listen ( ) to that melodious (. ) sound (5 )

2

O

the Tibetan guru gives/teaches ( ) oral instructions ( ) of/on Mahāmudrā (2 )

1

S

! O

)

e

all the Dharma practitioners of the greater vehicle generate (e ) the mind of enlightenment/bodhicitta ( ) )

An intransitive verb has a subject in the nominative case and no direct object.

Subject no particle + Intransitive verb

38

the sun ( ) rose ( )

- 1

-

n

(as for) all sentient beings, (they) are confused ( n )

the wheels ( ) of the chariot ( ) turn ( )

$

those yoginīs are liberated ($ )

`

e

(as for) renunciation ( ` ), (it) arises (e )

38

37

&

merit ( ) increases ( &

)

Z

L 3

the mind (_Z ) (h.) of the guru and the mind (_{L ) of the} disciple mingle together ( 3 )

$

he goes to Tibet39

W

the new student stays ( ) in Nepal

→ →→

→ Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive form. Here are a few examples

of these pairs40:

Transitive/active verbs Intransitive/passive verbs

,

to turn (spin)

to turn

e

to generate, produce

e

to be born, arise

o

to transform

p

to become

q

to accomplish

(

to be accomplished

5

to liberate

$

to be liberated

5

to obscure

$

to be obscured

-

to cut

to be cut

r

to cause to increase

&

to increase

to cause to fall

to fall

Y

to mix together

3

to be mixed together, mingle

→ →→

→ The negation of transitive and intransitive verbs is expressed by placing the negations

and

before those verbs. Often, is used to negate verbs in the past tense or in the

39

Just as it was the case for the existential verbs, the particles (here only is used) are used to indicate a location (place of existence, place of living, destination of a motion verb, etc). See lesson 5.

40

38

imperative mood and to negate verbs in the present or future tenses. and

also negate adjectives like in "permanent" and "impermanent", or "pure" and

"impure".

a

that monk didn't teach the Dharma

d

he/she doesn't look at me

$

this enemy doesn't harm the Dharma practitioner41

(as for) the sun (it) didn't rise

- 1

-

n

all sentient beings are not confused

the wheels of the chariot don't turn

Concluding remarks for the four types of verbs:

→ →→

→ Important elements of the sentences can be missing when you read a Tibetan text. In

particular, the subject/agent is frequently omitted if it can be understood from the

context (the objects can be missing too). It is common to mention the subject/agent once and

not to repeat it in later sentences. As you can see, the context is very important in classical Tibetan!

→ →→

→ We have seen in this lesson the simplest structures of the sentences ending with the four

types of verbs. It is extremely important to keep them clearly in mind. New complements (location, instrument, purpose, reason, indirect objects, adverbs, and so forth) will now be added to these basic structures. The functions of these complements will be indicated by the particles that will be studied in the next lessons. Remember that the absence of particle is as

important as their presence. We have already seen that the absence of particle can indicate

the subject and complement of a linking verb, the subject of a verb of existence, the direct object of a transitive verb, and the subject of an intransitive verb.

→ →→

→ There is no need at this stage to start memorizing the tenses of the verbs, except if you are

able and willing to do it…

41

When the verb has the same form for the present and future (as it is the case here), the tense must be determined from the context. For example, this sentence could mean: "he will not harm the Dharma practitioner".

39

TERMINATING PARTICLES

Terminating particles indicate the end of a sentence or the end of an idea expressed over

several sentences42. They mark a full stop. They are formed by duplicating the final suffix letter of the preceding word and adding a on it. If there is no suffix letter, the terminating particle is joined to the last syllable. After the second suffix letter , the terminating particle is

I

. The eleven terminating particles are:

I

^ L

virtue is the cause of happiness

1

-

all phenomena are impermanent43

W

L

I am in Nepal

*

Buddha taught the Dharma

- 1

-

n

all sentient beings are confused

42

Not all sentences end in a terminating particle! As we will see in lesson 7, many sentences (most of them requiring a period in English) can be connected together before ending in a terminating particle. The examples and exercices of this course will sometimes be concluded by a terminating particle and sometimes not. No need be confused about this. Similarly, strokes will be placed at the end of the examples and exercises.

43

40

Vocabulary list 3

$

dākinī

e

Dharma protector (Skt. Dharmapāla)

>

devotion

+

aspiration prayer

permanent (adj.) / permanence (noun)

impermanent (adj.) / impermanence (noun)

L

authentic, genuine

long

Q

ocean

6

Words (of the Buddha)

-

treatise (commentary on the Words)

9

peace

) *

( )

awakened mind (Skt. bodhicitta)

merit

=

conditioned thing, composite

T

to meditate, cultivate [T]

$

to go [I]

41

to dwell, live, stay [I]

\

to dwell, live, stay [I] (h.)

-

to cut [T]

d

to look at [T]

to do [T]

]

to do, to make [T] (h.)

]S

to hold, grasp [T]

:

to speak, say, teach [T] (h.)

to explain [T]

e

to generate, produce [T]

e

to arise, to be born [I]

to turn [I]

Note on the verbs:

Verbs on the vocabulary lists are given in their present tense spelling. Verbs are classified as transitive [T] or intransitive [I] according to the Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo.

42

EXERCICES

1) Memorize the structures of the sentences associated with the four types of verbs and the words of the vocabulary list 3.

2) Translate into English

4

L

e

L

3

&

=

6

-E

L

e

$

e

L

8

L _

= $ L

e

L

L I

> T

> L

*

$

e L