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Scholarship at UWindsor

Scholarship at UWindsor

Electronic Theses and Dissertations Theses, Dissertations, and Major Papers

1986

Self-actualization and Communication Contexts: Developments

Self-actualization and Communication Contexts: Developments

Toward a Theory of Communication

Toward a Theory of Communication

Carlinda D ’Alimonte University of Windsor

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd

Recommended Citation Recommended Citation

D ’Alimonte, Carlinda, "Self-actualization and Communication Contexts: Developments Toward a Theory of Communication" (1986). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 8036.

https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/etd/8036

This online database contains the full-text of PhD dissertations and Masters’ theses of University of Windsor students from 1954 forward. These documents are made available for personal study and research purposes only, in accordance with the Canadian Copyright Act and the Creative Commons license—CC BY-NC-ND (Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivative Works). Under this license, works must always be attributed to the copyright holder (original author), cannot be used for any commercial purposes, and may not be altered. Any other use would require the permission of the copyright holder. Students may inquire about withdrawing their dissertation and/or thesis from this database. For additional inquiries, please contact the repository administrator via email

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T o w a r d a T h e o r y of C o m m u n i c a t i o n

b y

C a r l i n d a D * A l i m o n t e

A t h e s i s

p r e s e n t e d to t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f W i n d s o r i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the

t h e s i s r e q u i r e m e n t for the d e g r e e of M a s t e r of Arts

in

C o m m u n i c a t i o n s t u d i e s

W i n d s o r , O n t ar i o, 1986

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I a u t h o r i z e the U n i v e r s i t y o f W i n d s o r t o l e n d t h i s t h e s i s to

o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s o r i n d i v i d u a l s f o r th e p u r p o s e of s c h o l ­

a r l y r e s e a r c h .

C a r l i n d a D ’A l i m o n t e

X f u r t h e r a u t h o r i z e the U n i v e r s i t y of W i n d s o r to r e p r o d u c e

t h i s t h e s i s by p h o t o c o p y i n g or b y o t h e r means, i n t o t a l o r

in part, a t the r e q u e s t of o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s or i n d i v i d u a l s for the p u r p o s e of s c h o l a r l y r e s e a r c h .

C a r l i n d a D * A l i m o n t e

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-p e r s o n s u s i n g or -p h o t o c o -p y i n g t h i s t h e s i s . P l e a s e si gn b e ­ low, a n d g i v e a d d r e s s a n d date.

(6)

-T h i s s t u d y a d d r e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a p e r s o n ' s

t i m e s p e n t i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s {as d e f i n e d by C o s t a r i s

11982), C o s t a r i s a n d S u r l i n (1982), M a k u c h (1984) a n d t h i s

r e s e a r c h e r , a n d m e a s u r e d b y t h e P e r s o n a l T i m e S u r v e y , PTS)

a n d a p e r s o n ' s l e v e l o f s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n (as d e f i n e d by

A b r a h a m H. H a s l o w a n d m e a s u r e d b y the P e r s o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n

I n v e n t o r y , P O I , S h o s t r u m , 1966, 1974).

In F a l l 198 1, Dr- S t u a r t H- S u r l i n p r o p o s e d a n e « t h e o r y

of c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h s t a t e d a s i ts f u n d a m e n t a l p o s t u l a t e

t h a t h u m a n s h a v e a n i n n a t e n e e d t o e n t e r i n t o t h r e e c o n t e x t s

of c o m m u n i c a t i o n : i n t e r p e r s o n a l , f a c e - t o - f a c e c o m m u n i c a ­

t io n; i n t r a p e r s o n a l , s e l f - c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; a n d e x t e r p e r s o n a l ,

s i m p l e o n e - w a y c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e c e p t i o n , i n o r d e r to p s y c h o ­

l o g i c a l l y g r o w a n d b e c o m e a l l t h a t o n e c a n p o t e n t i a l l y b e

( s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n ) - T h e t h r e e c o n t e x t s m i x to f o r m h y b r i d

c o n t e x t s : i n t e r p e r s o n a l / i n t r a p e r s o n a l , i n t e r p e r s o n a l / e x t e r

-p e r s o n a l , i n t r a -p e r s o n a l / e x t e r -p e r s o n a l , a n d i n t e r -p e r s o n a l / i n ­

t ra p e r s o n a 1 / e x t e r p e r s o n a l .

S u r l i n a l s o s u g g e s t e d a g r o w t h / p e r s e r v a t i o n p e r s p e c t i v e

r e l a t e d to t h e u s e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s . B a s i c a l l y

n e e d s f o r g r o w t h a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n a r e s u c c e s s f u l l y m e t

(7)

n-e n c n-e s a n d n-e x t n-e r p n-e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n l e n d s i t s e l f to p r e s ­

e r v a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s .

T h i s s t u d y o r i g i n a t e d as a n i n t e r e s t in th e ‘ i d e a l 1 u s e

of c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s f a c i l i t a t i n g h u m a n g r o w t h o r s e l f

-a c t u -a l i z -a t i o n . T h i s r e s e a r c h e r ' s firs t t a s k w a s to d e f i n e

all c o n t e x t s (not p r e v i o u s l y d o ne ) . I n d o i n g so, a p a r a l l e l

e m e r g e d b e t w e e n S u r l i n * s p e r s p e c t i v e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s s e t

f o r t h by A b r a h a m H- H a sl ow . N a m e l y , H a s l o w ' s g r o w t h / d e f e n c e

t h e o r y a s i t r e l a t e d t o s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n wa s s i m i l a r to

S u r l i n » s g r o w t h / p r e s e r v a t i o n p r e s p e c t i v e a s i t r e l a t e s to a

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y g r o w i n g pers on. A s the p a r a l l e l u n f o l d e d ,

c h a n g e s were i n t r o d u c e d t o S u r l i n ' s p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h d r e w

the t w o t h e o r i e s c l o s e r .

T h e p u r e e x t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t e x t was r e p l a c e d w i t h a n e w

c o n t e x t — e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h is a n a l a g o u s to

H a s l o w * s c o n c e p t of h i g h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g - E x t r a p e r s o n a l

c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n v o l v e m e n t w ith s u c h v a l ­

u es a s U n i t y , T r u t h , G o o d n e s s , J u s t i c e , a n d t h e like.

E x t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , f o r the p u r p o s e s of t h i s

study, b e c a m e the h y b r i d c o n t e x t r e s u l t i n g f r o m a m i x of i n ­

t e r p e r s o n a l , i n t r a p e r s o n a l , a n d e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

F u r t h e r , a s t h e t h e o r y a s s e r t s t h a t g r o w t h a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n

are e x p e r i e n c e d in p u r e c o n t e x t s , t h i s r e s e a r c h e r s u g g e s t e d

t h at h y b r i d c o n t e x t s f o r e s t a l l n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n .

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-s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h time -s p e n t in pure c o n t e x t -s (inter­

p e r s on a l, i n t r a p e r s o n a l , and e x t r a p e r s o n a l ) a n d n e g a t i v e l y

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t i m e s p e n t in m i x e d c o n t e x t ( i n t e r p e r s o n a l /

i n t r a p e r s o n a l , i n t e r p e r s o n a l / e x t r a p e r s o n a l , i n t r a p e r s o n a l /

e x t r a p e r s o n a l , a n d i n t e r p e r s o n a l / i n t r a p e r s o n a l / e x t r a p e r s o n ­

al) .

O n e h u n d r e d a n d t w e l v e u n i v e r s i t y u n d e r g r a d u a t e s c o m p l e t ­

ed t h e PTS a n d t he POI, m e a s u r i n g time i n c o n t e x t s a n d s e l f

-a c t u -a l i z -a t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y - P e a r s o n ' s P r o d u c t H o m e n t C o r ­

r e l a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s w e r e a p p l i e d to t h e dat a

-T h e r e w e r e n o s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n s c o r e s o n

the PTS a n d the POI- A b s e n c e o f f i n d i n g s may b e a t t r i b u t e d

to w e a k n e s s e s i n m e t h o d o l o g y , S u r l i n ' s theory, o r t h i s r e ­

s e a r c h e r ' s l i n e of r e a s o n i n g w h i c h g a v e w a y t o t h e h y p o t h ­

eses.

S e v e r a l o t h e r f i n d i n g s , n o t f o r m a l l y h y p o t h e s i z e d , a r e

r e p o r t e d . T h e s e l e n d l i m i t e d s u p p o r t to th e c o n c e p t u a l i z a ­

t i o n of the c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s - I m p r o v e m e n t s , a n d r e c ­

o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h a r e o f f e r e d .

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-I g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s m a d e by m e m ­

ber s o f my t h e s i s c o m m i t t e e , e s p e c i a l l y Prof, H u g h E dmu n ds ,

my t h e s i s c o m m i t t e e c h a i r p e r s o n , for his i n t e r e s t in t h i s

work. He has b e e n s u p p o r t i v e , e n c o u r a g i n g , an d f l e x i b l e i n

gu i d i n g me t h r o u g h a c r e a t i v e a nd m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g study.

Many thanks, a l so, t o Dr, S t u a r t S e l b y a n d Dr, D ale W o o d y a r d

for t h e i r v a l u a b l e f e e d b a c k a nd g u i d a nc e .

T h a n k s to Dr, S t u a r t H, S u r l i n for c o n d u c t i n g a v e r y i n ­

t e r e s t i n g g r a d u a t e c l a s s i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r y (Fall 198 1)

a n d for g u i d i n g me t h r o u g h t h e e a r l i e r s t a g e s of t h i s work.

I a p p r e c i a t e g r e a t l y t h e h e l p o f Dr. R i c h a r d L e v i s w h o g u i d ­

ed me t h r o u g h my u s e of SPSS.

My h u s b a n d , T e d , an d d a u g h t e r , C a i t l i n , a r e my g r e a t e s t

h a p p i n e s s in life. T h e y g i v e me s t r e n g t h a n d c o u r a g e to

p u r s u e m y work. I a m s o much b e t t e r for h a v i n g t h e m a n d my

w o r k m o r e m e a n i n g f u l b e c a u s e o f them. F i n a l l y , I t hank m y

m o t h e r f o r g e n t l y u r g i n g m e f o r w a r d by r e p e a t e d l y a s k i n g me,

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A B S T B A C T ... i v

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ... . vii.

D E D I C A T I O N ... v i i i

C h a n t e r P a g e

I. I M T H O D U C T I O N ... 1

O v e r v i e w of t h e P r o b l e m . . . 1

D e f i n i t i o n s . . . S

O v e r v i e w of K e l a v e n t T h e o r e t i c S t a t e m e n t s . . . 24

N e w D e v e l o p m e n t s . . . . . . . 26

M a s l o w — A P a r a l l e l E m e r g e s . . . 2 7

D e f e n s e , G r o w t h , a n d H i g h e r

U n d e r s t a n d i n g . . . 2 9

P s y c h o l o g i c a l S i c k n e s s a n d

F o r e s t a l l i n g N e e d S a t i s f a c t i o n - - . 34

S u m m a r y . . . . . . . . . 3 5

H y p o t h e s e s . . . . . . . . . 3 8

II. M E T H O D ... . . . 3 9

S u b j e c t s . . . . . . 39

I n s t r u m e n t s . . . . 4 0

P e r s o n a l T i m e S u r v e y . . . 4 0

P e r s o n a l T i m e S u r v e y — P a r t O n e • 4 4

P e r s o n a l T i m e S u r v e y — P a r t 2 . . . 4 S

P e r s o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n I n v e n t o r y . . . 5 3

P r o c e d u r e • • • . . . • • . . . • • . . 5 8

I I I. F I N D I N G S ... 6 0

H y p o t h e s e s . . . ... . . . 6 6 F i n d i n g s N o t F o r m a l l y H y p o t h e s i z e d . . . 6 7

I?. D I S C U S S I O N A N D C O N C L U S I O N . . . 7 2

O v e r v i e w a n d D i s c u s s i o n . . . 7 2

T h e T h e o r y • • • . . . • . • • . 7 2

I n s t r u m e n t s . . . 7 8

S a m p l e . . . 80

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-H y p o t h e s i z e d ... . . . B1 S e l r - a c t u a l i z a t i o n and A c t i v i t i e s . . . . . . 01

Cor.text and A c t i v i t y . . . • . . . • . 02

Hoc orumend * t io n s ... 37

T h e P e r s o n a l T i m e S u r v e y . . . 0 7

The S a m p l e . . . 03

O t h e r R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . . . 3 9

B I B L I O G R A P H Y ... 91

Append ix p a g e

A. P E R S O N A L T I M E S U R V E Y AND P E R S O N A L O R I E N T A T I O N

I N V E N T O R Y ... 9 6

B. I N S T R U C T I O N S , D E S C R I P T I O N O F P U R P O S E , A ND P O I N T

C A R D ... 118

C. A P P L I C A T I O N O F R E C R U I T M E N T OF R E S E A R C H S U B J E C T S . .122

D. C O D I N G I N S T R U C T I O N S A MD S U M M A R Y OF C O N T E X T S . . . .124

E. R E S U L T S O F F I R S T C O D I N G ... . 1 2 7

P. P E R S O N A L T I M E S U R V E Y — F I R S T D R A F T ... 139

V I T A A U C T O R I S ... 152

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-T a b i c p a g e

1 • D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s 3 a s e d on R e p o r t e d H o u r s . . . 63

2. D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s B a r e d on P e r c e n t a g e of

T i m e . ... . . . 65

3. P e a r s o n C o r r e l a t i o n — S e l f - A c t u a l i z a t i o n with

C o n t e x t ... - - . - 6 7

4. P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n -- S e l f - A c t u a l i z a t i o n with

A c t i v i t y . . . . . . . . . 6 8

5. P e a r s o n C o r r e l a t i o n s : A c t i v i t y w i t h Pure

C o n t e x t s . . . . . . 6 9

6. P e a r s o n C o r r e l a t i o n s : A c t i v i t y w i t h M i x e d

C o n t e x t s . . . . . . 7 0

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-I N T R O D U C T -I O N

1- 1 OVERVIEff O F T H E P R O B L E M

T his w o r k e v o l v e d f r o m e a r l i e r s t u d y o f a t h e o r y of c o m ­

m u n i c a t i o n , s e t f o r t h by Dr. S t u a r t H. S u r l i n , * w h i c h

s t a t e s a s i t s f u n d a m e n t a l p o s t u l a t e :

All h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e an i n n a t e n e e d t o e n t e r i n t o

t h r e e c o n t e x t s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n — i n t e r p e r s o n a l ,

i n t r a p e r s o n a l , a n d e x t e r p e r s o n a l — in o r d e r to

e xi s t , p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y d e v e l o p ( g r o w ) , a nd a s a

m e a n s o f b e c o m i n g a v i a b l e / a c c e p t e d m e m b e r of s o­

c i e t y . 2

A c c o r d i n g to t h e t h e o r y t h e t h r e e c o n t e x t s o f c o m m u n i c a ­

t i o n r e p r e s e n t the g a m u t o f h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n . I n t e r p e r ­

s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is b a s i c a l l y f a c e - t o - f a c e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

b e t w e e n t w o or m o r e p e o p l e ; i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is

s e l f - c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; and, e x t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s o n e ­

way c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l a c k of b o t h m e n t a l e n ­

e r g y a n d c o n t r o l of m e s s a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n .

S u r l i n h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e thre e p u r e c o n t e x t s c o u l d

m i x w i t h e a c h o t h e r to fo rm h y b r i d c o n t e x t s of c o m m u n i c a ­

tion. T h u s , S u r l i n p r o p o s e d s e v e n c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s ,

1 W or ks d e l i n i a t i n g t h e t h e o r y a r e r e f e r e n c e s by C o s t a r i s

(1932), C o s t a r i s a n d S u r l i n (1982), a n d M a k u c h ( 1 984 ).

2 L i n d a A n n M a k u c h , " An A n a l y s i s o f t h e ' E x t e r p e r s o n a l C o n ­

t e x t of C o m m u n i c a t i o n , Locus o f C o n t r o l , a n d S e l f - E s t e e m " , E a s t e r s T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f W i n d s o r , 1984. p. 19.

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t h r e e p u r e a n d f o u r h y b r i d - T h e p u r e c o n t e x t s are i n t e r p e r ­

sonal, i n t r a p e r s o n a l , e x t e r p e r s o n a l . T h e f o u r h y b r i d c o n ­

t e x t s a r e i n t e r p e r s o n a l / i n t r a p e r s o n a l , i n t e r p e r s o n a l / e x t e r

-p e rson al, i n t r a p e r s o n a l / e x t e r p e r s o n a l , a n d

i n t e r p e r s o n a l / i n t r a p e r s o n a l / e x t e r p e r s o n a l - H y b r i d c o n t e x t s

w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t par ts.

T h e theo ry, s t i l l in i t s f o r m a t i v e s t a g e s , h a s b een the

m ain f o c u s o f t w o o t h e r M a s t e r s T h e s e s : "'Growth a n d P r e s e r ­

v a t i o n - O r i e n t e d I n d i v i d u a l s : A P a r t i a l T e s t of a F i e l d

T h e o r y o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n ” (1982) by G e o r g e C o s t a r i s , a nd " A n

A n a l y s i s of the ' E x t e r p e r s o n a l C o n t e x t o f C o m m u n i c a t i o n by

F am i ly C o m m u n i c a t i o n , L o c u s o f C o n t r o l , a n d S e l f - E s t e e m "

(193h) by L i n d a A nn M a k u c h . T h e s e w o r k s p r o v i d e an e x c e l ­

lent b a s e f r o m w h i c h to f u r t h e r r e f i n e t h e t h e o r y . T h e y

p r o v i d e a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of S u r l i n ' s t h e o r y of c o m m u n i ­

c at io n . T h u s , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n p r o v i d e d in t h i s r e p o r t w i l l

be lim it ed .

A c c o r d i n g to M a k u c h t h e t h e o r y ' s p u r p o s e is t o

m a k e p a r t i c i p a n t s a w a r e o f t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e ­

h a v i o u r , an d to p r e d i c t t h e p r o p e r b a l a n c e o f the

t h r e e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s t h at w i l l a i d o n e in

a c h i e v i n g p o s i t i v e s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t

an d m o v e m e n t t o w a r d s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n , i . e., b e ­

c o m i n g the b e s t p e r s o n o n e c an b e c o m e . 3

A c c o r d i n g t o S u r l i n e a c h p e r s o n d e c i d e s the o v e r - a l l p r o ­

p o r t i o n of t i m e s p e n t w i t h i n e a c h c o n t e x t t h r o u g h o u t a g i v e n

p e r i o d o f time. S e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n (being a l l t h a t on e c a n

p o t e n t i a l l y be) , is a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h an i n d i v i d u a l l y d e t e r ­

(16)

m i n e d b a l a n c e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o n t e x t s - F u r t h e r , o n e ' s

a b i l i t y to a c h i e v e s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n d e p e n d s o n o n e ' s a b i l ­

ity to a l t e r n a t e b e t w e e n p e r i o d s o f 'gr owt h' a n d ' p r e s e r v a ­

tion*. G r o w t h i s t h e d o m i n a n t p r i n c i p l e of l ife b u t it m u s t

be a c c o m p a n i e d by p e r i o d s o f r e t r o g r a d e p r e s e r v a t i o n w h i c h

p r o v i d e a b a s e f o r g r o w t h e x p e r i e n c e s - A l t h o u g h a n y c o n t e x t

may f a c i l i t a t e g r o w t h o r p r e s e r v a t i o n , i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d i n ­

t r a p e r s o n a l c o n t e x t s a r e e s p e c i a l l y q u a l i f i e d to i n v o l v e

g r o w t h e x p e r i e n c e s a n d t h e e x t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t e x t i s u n i q u e l y

q u a l i f i e d to i n v o l v e p r e s e r v a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e s - 4

H owev e r, in p u r s u i n g t h i s r e s e a r c h , d e f i n i n g the c o m m u n i ­

c a t i o n c o n t e x t s , a n d e x a m i n i n g t h e c o n c e p t of s e l f - a c t u a l i ­

z a t i o n c l o s e l y , a r a t i o n a l e w a s d e v e l o p e d w h i c h s u g g e s t e d

t h a t e x t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n d o e s n ot s a t i s f y h e a l t h y

p r e s e r v a t i o n n e e d s a n d p o s s i b l y , is a n t i t h e t i c a l to s e l f - a c ­

t u a l i z a t i o n . F u r t h e r , a s t h e t h e o r y a s s e r t s t h at p u r e c o n ­

t e x t s a r e u n i g u e l y q u a l i f i e d to m e e t n e e d s f o r g r o w t h a n d

p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n e w p u r e c o n t e x t , c a l l e d e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m ­

m u n i c a t i o n , h a s b e e n p o s t u l a t e d b y t h i s r e s e a r c h e r - H y b r i d

c o n t e x t s m ay b e u s e d to m e e t n e e d s b ut a r e m o r e l i k e l y to

t h w a r t n e e d s s a t i s f a c t i o n - C o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r i n g in p u r e

c o n t e x t s r e q u i r e s m o r e e n e r g y a n d is g e n e r a l l y m o r e d e m a n d ­

i ng t h a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r i n g in h y b r i d c o n t e x t s . A s w i l l

4 G e o r g e C o s t a r i s a n d S t u a r t H- S u r l i n , " G r o w t h a n d P r e s e r ­

v a t i o n - O r i e n t e d C o m m u n i c a t i o n B e h a v i o u r : S u p p o r t for a

G r a n d T h e o r y of C o m m u n i c a t i o n . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t the

C a n a d i a n C o m m u n i c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n C o n f e r e n c e , O tt a w a ,

(17)

be e x p l a i n e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r , p u r e c o n t e x t s r e q u i r e a n

o p e n mind; t h e y c a n b e c h a l l e n g i n g , a n d o v e n t h r e a t e n i n g .

For t h o s e w h o f i n d s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n a n d more a c t i v e c o m m u ­

n i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t , h y b r i d c o n t e x t s c a n be an e a s i e r a n d

s a f e r f o r m o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h u s , it i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t e x ­

t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n Jan u n d e m a n d i n g c o n t e x t ) i s not a

p u r e c o n t e x t b ut a h y b r i d c o n t e x t . I n i t s p l a c e a n e w

’pure* c o n t e x t i s p r o p o s e d — e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

E x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s e m b l e s A b r a h a m H. M a s l o v ’s

c o n c e p t o f h i g h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e s m o m e n t s o f

u n i t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s Jpeak e x p e r i e n c e s ) a n d an a p p r e c i a t i o n

of h i g h e r v a l u e s s u c h a s J u s t i c e , T r u t h , an d G o o d n e s s . 3

T h e c o n c e p t of e x t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e m a i n s t h e

same. It i s s i m p l y s u g g e s t e d t hat, r a t h e r t h a n a p u r e c o n ­

text, it is a h y b r i d c o n t e x t r e s u l t i n g f r o m a m i x of i n t e r ­

p e r s o n a l , i n t r a p e r s o n a l , a n d e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

This s t u d y d r a w s a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n S u r l i n ’s t h e o r y o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h e p u r p o s e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n

is to a c h i e v e s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n , a n d a r a t i o n a l e b a s e d

l a r g e l y on M a s l o w ' s v i e w s on p s y c h o l o g i c a l n e e d s a n d m o t i v a ­

tion.

T h e s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s s t u d y is : d o e s a

p e r s o n ’s t i m e s p e n t i n p u r e vs. h y b r i d c o n t e x t s r e l a t e to

o n e ’s l e v e l o f s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n ; i.e., d o m or e s e l f - a c t u ­

a l i z e d p e o p l e s p e n d m o re t i m e i n p u r e c o n t e x t s .

5 A b r a h a m H. M a s l o v , T o w a r d a P s y c h o l o g y of B e i n g . JNew

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T h i s is an e x e r c i s e in t h e o r y b u i l d i n g . I t is n o t a d e ­

f e n s e of a theory . T h e g oal is to d e v e l o p a n d t e s t h y p o t h ­

e s e s f r o m f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n s , i n h e r e n t i n t h e t h eor y,

t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o w a r d s u p p o r t for o r r e j e c t i o n of the

theory.

1-2 D E F I N I T I O N S

1. C o m m u n i c a t i o n

A c c o r d i n g to C o s t a r i s

C o m m u n i c a t i o n i s the t r a n s m i s s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n ,

i d e a s , e m o t i o n s , s k i l l s , e t c . , by u s e of s y m b o l s

— wo rds, p i c t u r e s , f i g u r e s , g r a p h s , etc. I t is

the f o r m o r c o n t e x t of t r a n s m i s s i o n t hat w i l l be

t e r m e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 6

2. S e l f - A c t u a l i z a t i o n

N a s l o w d e f i n e d s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n i n t e r m s of the

p e r s o n ' s ' d e s i r e f o r s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t , n a me ly , to

t h e t e n d e n c y f o r h i m to b e c o m e a c t u a l i z e d in w hat

he i s p o t e n t i a l l y - ' He e l a b o r a t e d o n t h i s d e f i n i ­

t i o n as ' the d e s i r e to b e c o m e m o r e a n d more w h a t

on e i d i o s y c r a t i c a l l y is, to b e c o m e e v e r y t h i n g t h a t

o n e is c a p a b l e o f b e c o m i n g . . . In o n e i n d i v i d u a l it

may tak e the f o r m o f the d e s i r e t o be an i d e a l

mother, i n a n o t h e r i t may b e e x p r e s s e d a t h l e t i c a l ­

l y a n d i n s t i l l a n o t h e r it may be e x p r e s s e d in

p a i n t i n g p i c t u r e s o r in i n v e n t i o n s . At t h i s l e v ­

el, i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e g r e a t e s t - ' 7

6 G e o r g e C o s t a r i s , " G r o w t h a n d P r e s e r v a t i o n - O r i e n t e d I n d i ­

v i d u a l s : A P a r t i a l T e s t of a F i e l d T h e o r y of C o m m u n i c a ­

tion", M a s t e r s T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of W i n d s o r , 1982. p. 3.

7 B o b e r t B. C a r k h u f f , T o w a r d A c t u a l i z i n q H u m a n P o t e n t i a l .

( M a s s a c h u s e t t s : H u m a n B e s o u r c e D e v e l o p m e n t P re s s, 1981) ,

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3. I n t r a p e r s o n a l Comtnun icat ion

I n t r a p e c s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n of

i n f o r m a t i o n , i d e a s , e m o t i o n s , etc., b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t c o m p o ­

n e n t s of o n e ' s i n t e l l e c t or p s y c h o . It is s e lf co m r a u n i c a

-t i o n a n d o c c u r s a -t b o -t h a c o n s c i o u s a nd s u b c o n s c i o u s level..

It i n v o l v e s i n t e r n a l i d e a t i o n a l a n d a f f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s .

I n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s m a d e p o s s i b l e be­

c a u s e m a n can b e c o m e o b j e c t to h i m s e l f t h r o u g h the

use of th e s y m b o l s used in h is c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

T h r o u g h t h e s e s y m b o l s w h a t man ' s a y s to o t h e r s c a n m e a n t he s a m e to h i m s e l f as it d o e s to t h e m ' . a

In i n t r a p e r s o n a 1 c o m m u n i c a t i o n a p e r s o n m a y be c o m m u n i ­

c a t i n g w i t h a n i m a g i n a r y i n t e r l o c u t o r . T h i s r e f e r e n c e p h e ­

n o m e n o n ( 3cQuail, 1969) can o c c u r i n t w o w a y s. F i r s t , a

p e r s o n m ay c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z e h i s or he r o w n p e r s o n a l i t y a n d

a s s u m e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two or m o r e p a r t s w h i l e

s w i t c h i n g ro l es . S e c o n d , a p e r s o n m ay c r e a t e a f i c t i t i o u s

p e r s o n a l i t y w ith w h o m to c o m m u n i c a t e . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n o n e

is e n g a g e d i n c r e a t i v e work, o n e from n e c e s s i t y c r e a t e s an

i n t e r l o c u t o r o r a u d i e n c e , e i t h e r m a d e up o f h i m s e l f o r h e r ­

s e l f o r of a f i c t i t i o u s c h a r a c t e r . F u r t h e r ,

We e n g a g e in i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n w h e n w e

muse, r e f l e c t o n p h e n o m e n a i n c l u d i n g o u r s e l v e s , o r

d e l i b e r a t e p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n . T h r o u g h

i n t e r n a l d i a l o g u e s we o r g a n i z e t h o u g h t s , c o n s i d e r

d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s o n an i s s u e , a n d a s s i g n

m e a n i n g s t o o u r e x p e r i e n c e s . C o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h i n

the s e l f t a x e s p l a c e c o n s t a n t l y , w h e t h e r w e a r e

Feed H. B l a k e a n d E d w i n 0. H a r o l d s e n , \ T a x o n o m y of C o n ­

c ep t s in C o m m u n i c a t i o n . 'New York: H a s t i n g s H o u s e P u b ­

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a l o n e o r w i t h o th e rs . A l t h o u g h i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m ­

m u n i c a t i o n m a y o c c u r w i t h o u t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h

o t h e r s , no c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h o t h e r s c a n o c c u r

w i t h o u t i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 9

I n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s a c r i t i c a l , open,

a n d s i n c e r e a t t i t u d e . I t t a k e s t h e f o r m of: [1) c r e a t i v e

w o r k ( p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g , g e n e r a t i n g new i d e a s , p l a n n i n g ) : (2)

c r e a t i v e p l a y ( in c lu d i n g c r e a t i v e fantasy) ; (3) a n a l y s i s of

o n e ’s r e l a t i o n to o t h e r p e o p l e , a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t ; and (4)

s e l f - a n a l y s i s ( i n c l u d i n g d r e a m s ) .

I n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s a g r e a t d e a l of i n ­

f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g . I t is l e s s l ik e l y , h o w e ve r , to f a c i l ­

i t a t e t h r e a t s to o n e ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e b e c a u s e o f

the a b s e n c e of o b j e c t i v e f e e d b ac k .

In i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n the i n d i v i d u a l h a s a g r e a t

d e a l of c o n t r o l . W h i l e f e e d b a c k occ ur s, it c o m e s f r o m w i t h ­

in t he s e l f and n o t f r o m a n o t h e r p e r s o n ; i t i s c o n t r o l l e d

by the c o m m u n i c a t o r . H o w e v e r , no t r u e tie to a n e x t e r n a l

r e a l i t y e xi st s .

4. I n t e r p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n

I n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n is

d i r e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n two o r more p e o p l e i n p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y i n w h i c h a l l o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l ­

ly f u n c t i o n i n g s e n s e s ca n b e u t i l i z e d a n d i m m e d i ­

a t e f e e d b a c k i s p r e s e n t . 10

9 J u l i a T. Wood, H u m a n C o m m u n i c a t o n : ^ S y m b o l i c I n t e r a c

-t i o n i s -t P e r s p e c -t i v e . (New York: Holt, K i n e h a r t a nd W i n ­

ston, 1932), p. 42.

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D u ri n g i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , the p a r t i e s i n v o l v o d

s tr i v e t o s ha r e m e a n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e . A l l p a r t i e s p r o v i d e

i n p u t a n d a c c o m m o d a t e f e ed bac k.

T h e f o l l o v i n g a r e a l i s t o f c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h M c K a y a n d

Ga w r e l a t e t o d i a l o g u e b u t w h i c h a pp l y d i r e c t l y t o i n t e r p e r ­

s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n :

a) I n v o l v e m e n t f r o m a f e l t n e e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e

b) A t m o s p h e r e of o p e n n e s s , f r e e d o m , and r e s p o n s i b i l i ­ ty

c) M u t u a l t r u s t a n d r e s p e c t

d) S i n c e r i t y a n d h o n e s t y in a t t i t u d e t o w a r d c o m m u n i ­

c a t i o n

e) A p p r e c i a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s a n d u n i q u e ­ n e s s

f) A c c e p t a n c e of d i s a g r e e m e n t a n d c o n f l i c t w i t h a d e ­ s i r e f o r r e s o l u t i o n

g) A w i l l i n g n e s s to a d m i t e r r o r a n d a l l o w p e r s u a s i o n

h) E f f e c t i v e f e e d b a c k a n d u s e of f e e d b a c k

i) A p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and l e a r n ­

i n g 1 *•

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n of d i a l o g u e is s y n o n y m o u s w i t h o u r c o n c e p t of

i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

B e c a u s e i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e s u l t s in an e x p e r i e n c e

of e m o t i o n a l o r i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n n e c t e d n e s s , i t s a t i s f i e s n e e d s

f or a c c e p t a n c e , s u p p o r t , b e l o n g i n g , l o v e a nd s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n .

11 J o h n J. M a K a y a n d B e v e r l y A. Gaw, P e r s o n a l and I n t e r p e r

-s o n a 1 C o m m u n i c a t i o n . [Colum bu -s, Ohio: M e r r i l P u b l i s h i n g

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T o f u r t h e r c l a r i f y t h i s concept, B u b e r ' s work o n " I - Th o u" a n d

"I-It" r e l a t i o n s h i p s will be c o n s i d e r e d . I n the I - T h o u r e l a t i o n ­

ship, the p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e sincere, e m p a t h e t i c and a t t e m p t i n g to

e s t a b l i s h a s e n s e of u n ity with e a c h o ther* I n the I-It r e l a ­

tionship, a person i s b e i n g m a n i p u l a t i v e and s e e k i n g s e l f - a g g r a n ­

dizement. (The I - I t r e l a t i o n s h i p will be d i s c u s s e d in g r e a t e r

detail lat er i n t h i s section.) 12

J o h a n n e s e n has d e s c r i b e d the I - T h o u r e l a t i o n s h i p a s b ea r i n g

e l e m e n t s of " m utu ali ty, o p e n - h e a r t e d n e s s , di rec t ne s s, ho nesty,

spontaneity, frankne ss, lack of p r et ens e, n o n - m a n i p u l a t i v e i n ­

tent, c o m m u n i o n , i n t e n s i t y , and l o ve i n t h e s e n s e of o ne human

bei ng for a n o t h e r . " 13

S e l f - d i s c l o s u r e is an e s s e n t i a l part of i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i ­

cation. Adler, B o s e n f e l d and To wne , in d e f i n i n g s e I f - d i s c l o s u r e

as an a c t of c o m m u n i c a t i o n , n o t e these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : hones ty,

b e ing as h o n e s t a n d a c c u r a t e a s one c a n be; d ep th, b e ing p e r s o n ­

al and d i s c u s s i n g r e l a t i v e l y 'deep* r a t h e r t ha n ' s u r f a c e 1 i n f o r ­

mation; a v a i l a b i l i t y of inf o rm a ti o n, c o m m u n i c a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n

whic h is o n l y a v a i l a b l e o r e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e a m o n g t he p a r t i e s i n ­

volved; c o n t e x t of sharing; the c o n t e n t is about the s e nde r;

t h e c o nt e nt is g i v e n i n t e n t i o n a l l y ; and, it i s d i r e c t e d a t an­

o th er

person-12 Mar tin Buber, u s ; I and Thou, 2nd ed. (New York: C h a r l e s

S cr i bne rs, 1958).

13 In M c K a y and Gaw, p 122.

R o n a l d Adler, L a w r e n c e B. B o s e n f e l d a nd Neil Towne,

" S e l f - D i s c l o s u r e " in C o n t e x t s of C o m m u ni c a ti o n . Jean M.

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T h i s c o n t e x t of c o m m u n i c a t i o n is a p e r s o n ' s ti e t o r e a l i t y ; it

c o n n e c t s a n i n d i v i d u a l to h i s o r her e n v i r o n m e n t b e c a u s e o n l y

t h i s c o n t e x t f a c i l i t a t e s s i n c e r e f e e d b a c k . F o r t h a t r e a s o n it

c an p o t e n t i a l l y t h r e a t e n o n e ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e a n d u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g o f r e a l i t y o r o n e s e l f . A p e r s o n t a k e s t h e risk o f d i s ­

c o v e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h i s c o n t r a r y to h i s or h e r p e r s o n a l b e ­

l i e f s a n d v al u e s . B y p e r m i t t i n g t r u e f e e d b a c k to o c c u r , o n e is

v u l n e r a b l e t o t h r e a t e n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s c o n t e x t i n v o l v e s

g r e a t r i sk a n d d i f f i c u l t y .

5. E x t r a p e r s o n a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n

E x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e o n e - w a y t r a n s ­

m i s s i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h : J1) c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l a c k

of f e e d b a c k , r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t , and c o n t r o l o v e r m e s s a g e

t r a n s m i s s i o n , (2) d o e s n o t d e a l w i t h o n e ' s i m m e d i a t e r e a l i ­

ty, (3) i s r e c e i v e d b y a n a c g u i e s c e n t i n d i v i d u a l , a n d (4)

r e s u l t s in a n e x p e r i e n c e o f g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g .

T he m i n d i s f i n e - f o c u s e d o n a s i n g l e t h o u g h t w i t h s u c h

i n t e n s i t y t h a t a l l o t h e r t h o u g h t s a r e s u p p r e s s e d . T h e r a ­

t i o n a l m i n d i s p a s s i v e b u t t h e p e r s o n as a w h o l e is h i g h l y

c h a r g e d w i t h e n e r g y . W h i l e t he r a t i o n a l m in d i s u n c r i t i c a l ,

it i s o p e n a n d s i n c e r e .

E x t r a p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s a r e e x p e r i e n c e s o f h i g h e r u n ­

d e r s t a n d i n g w h i c h m a y o c c u r a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f d e p t h .

T h e y r a n g e f r o m a d e e p e n e d s e n s e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e of a

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t h o ug ht , to p r o f o u n d s p i r i t u a l e x p e r i e n c e s , ** T h e s e e x p e r i ­

e n c e s c a n i n v o l v e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f s u c h v a l u e s a s T ru t h,

Unity, B e a u t y , J u s t i c e , M e a n i n g f u l n e s s , a n d the l i k e . T h e y

r e s u l t i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f an e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y [such as a

c o n c e p t of a g o d o r a c o m m o n wo rld) a n d o n e ’s a c c o u n t a b i l i t y

to o n e ' s f e l l o w h u m a n s .

H u m a n s t h r o u g h o u t t i m e a nd in a l l p a r t s of the w o r l d h a v e

s o u g h t h i g h e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . R e l i g i o u s w r i t i n g s m e n t i o n

m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s w h e r e a g o d i s r e v e a l e d o r w h e r e p r o ­

f o u n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g is a c h i e v e d . B u d d h i s t s h o p e f o r n i r v a ­

na, a n e x p e r i e n c e o f t o t a l i n n e r p e a c e a n d a n n i h i l a t i o n o f

t h e self ; C h r i s t i a n s s e e k c o m m u n i o n w i t h G o d ; M o h a m m e d a n s

s p e a k of t he U n i t y of Al la h . A c c o r d i n g t o H a s l o w ,

T h e h i g h r e l i g i o n s c a l l t h e m s e l v e s r e v e a l e d r e l i g ­

i o n s a n d e a c h o f t h e m t e n d s to r e s t i t s v a l i d i t y ,

i t s f u n c t i o n , a n d i t s r i g h t t o e x i s t o n t h e c o d i ­

f i c a t i o n a n d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n of (an) o r i g i n a l

m y s t i c e x p e r i e n c e o r r e v e l a t i o n f r o m the l o n e l y

p r o p h e t t o t h e m a s s of h u m a n b e i n g s in g e n e r a l - 16

W i l l i a m J a m e s (1902) h a s n o t e d f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h p e r t a i n to e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i ­

c a t i o n - F i r s t t h e r e i s i n e f f a b i l i t y . T h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s

s e e m t o t r a n s c e n d v e r b a l s y m b o l s a n d d e f y e x p r e s s i o n . T h e y

c a n n o t b e i m p a r t e d to o t h e r s . O n e u n d e r s t a n d s o n l y b e c a u s e

o n e has e x p e r i e n c e d s u c h a s ta t e .

15 W i l l i a m J a m e s , T h e V a r i e t i e s of R e l i a i o u s E x p e r i e n c e .

(New Y o r ks The M o d e r n L i b r a r y , 1902), p p 3 7 3 - 3 7 U .

16 In N i n i a n S m a r t , T h e R e l i g i o u s E x p e r i e n c e o f M a n k i n d .

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T h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s a n o e t i c g u a l i t y

-A l t h o u g h so s i m i l a r to s t a t e s o f f e e l i n g , t h e s e

s t a t e s s e e m to t h o s e w h o e x p e r i e n c e t h e m t o be

a l s o s t a t e s o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e y a r e s t a t e s of i n ­

s i g h t i n t o d e p t h s o f t r u t h u n p l u m b e d by t he d i s ­

c u r s i v e i n t e l l e c t . T h e y a r e i l l u m i n a t i o n s , r e v e ­

l a t i o n s , f u l l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d i m p o r t a n c e , a l l

i n a r t i c u l a t e t h o u g h the y r e m a i n ; a n d a s a r u l e

t h e y c a r r y w i t h t h e m a c u r i o u s s e n s e o f a u t h o r i t y

f or a f t e r t i m e . * 7

M y s t i c a l s t a t e s a r e t r a n s i e n t . T h e y l a s t f r o m a f e w m i n ­

u t e s t o two h o u r s b u t t h e y are s e l d o m l o n g e r t h a n t w o h ou r s .

T h e f o u r t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s p a s s i v i t y . W h i l e t h e s e

s t a t e s a r e p r e c i p i t a t e d by s o m e v o l u n t a r y e f f o r t o n the p a r t

of t h e i n d i v i d u a l teg. c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) , o n c e t h e s t a t e i s

a c h i e v e d , i n d i v i d u a l s f e e l a s e n s e of t o t a l s u b m i s s i o n , t o ­

t a l p a s s i v i t y , a s if " h i s own w i l l w e re i n o b e y e n c e , a nd i n ­

d e e d s o m e t i m e s a s i f h e w e r e g r a s p e d a n d h e l d by a s u p e r i o r

p o w e r ” . 18

B u c k e c a l l s t h e s e s t a t e s , e x p e r i e n c e s of c o s m i c c o n ­

s c i o u s n e s s .

T h e p r i m e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c o s m i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s

is an c o n s c i o u s n e s s of the c o s m o s , t h a t is, o f the

l i f e a n d o r d e r of t he u n i v e r s e . A l o n g w i t h the

c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t he c o s m o s t h e r e o c c u r s a n i n t e l ­

l e c t u a l e n l i g h t e n m e n t w h i c h a l o n e w o u l d p l a c e t h e

i n d i v i d u a l on a n e w p l a n e o f e x i s t e n c e w o u l d

m a ke h i m a l m o s t a m e m b e r o f a n e w s p e c i e s . T o

t h i s is a d d e d a s t a t e of m o r a l e x a l t a t i o n , a n i n ­

d e s c r i b a b l e f e e l i n g o f e l e v a t i o n , e l a t i o n , a n d

j o y o u s n e s s , a n d a g u i c k e n i n g of t h e m o r a l s e n s e ,

w h i c h i s f u l l y a s s t r i k i n g , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t

t h a n is t h e e n h a n c e d i n t e l l e c t u a l p ower . With

t h e s e c o m e w h a t m a y be c a l l e d a s e n s e o f i m m o r t a l ­

it y, a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f e t e r n a l l i f e , n o t a c o n ­

17 J am e s , p. 371.

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372-v i c t i o n t h a t he s h a l l h a v e this, b u t the c o n ­ s c i o u s n e s s t h a t he h a s it a l r e a d y . 1 9

C o m p a r e t h e s e t w o a c c o u n t s o f e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a ­

tion.

M o r e o v e r , s o m e t h i n g i s o r s e e m s T h a t t o u c h e s me

w i t h m y s t i c g l e a m s , L i k e g l i m p s e s of f o r g o t t e n

d r e a m s —

O f s o m e t h i n g felt, l i k e s o m e t h i n g h e r e ; O f s o m e ­

t h i n g d o n e , I k n o w n o t w h e r e ; S u c h as no l a n g u a g e

may d e c l a r e .2°

X w a s a l o n e u p o n t he s e a s h o r e a s a l l t h e s e

t h o u g h t s f l o w e d o v e r me, l i b e r a t i n g a n d r e c o n c i l ­

i ng. . . X f e l t t h a t I p r a y e d a s I h a d n e v e r p r a y e d

b e f o r e , a n d k n e w n o w w h a t p r a y e r r e a l l y is: t o

r e t u r n f r o m t h e s o l i t u d e of i n d i v i d u a t i o n i n t o the

c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f u n i t y w i t h a l l t h a t is, t o k n e e l

d o w n as o n e t h a t p a s s e s a w a y, a n d to r i s e u p a s

one i m p e r i s h a b l e . Earth, h ea v en , a n d s e a r e s o u n d ­

e d as in one v a s t w o r l d - e n c i r c l i n g h a r m o n y . I t

w a s a s if t h e c h o r u s o f a l l t h e g r e a t w h o h a d e v e r

l i v e d w e r e a b o u t me. X f e l t m y s e l f o n e w ith

them ... 21

E x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e m o v e s o n e f r o m h i s o r h e r

i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y ; i t i s a c o n t e x t w h i c h m ay p r o v i d e , a s i n

the e x a m p l e s c i t e d , e i t h e r a m i l d o r p r o f o u n d m e d i t a t i v e e x ­

p e r i e n c e . E x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n b e t h r e a t e n i n g i n

t h a t o n e ' s s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d a c c o u n t a b i l i t y i s

h e i g h t e n e d .

19 Q u o t e d in J a m e s , p. 3 8 9 - 3 9 0 .

2 0 T e n n y s o n q u o t e d i n J a m e s , 1902, p. 37£*.

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T h i s c o n t e x t m i x e s i n tr a pers oti al a n d e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u ­

n i c a t i o n . c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n

( i n t e rn a l t h o u g h t , l e a r n i n g , c a t h a r t i c rel ea s e) w i t h c h a r a c ­

t e r i s t i c s of e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n (one-way t r a n s m i s ­

s i o n , a b s e n c e of f e e d b a c k , l a c k of c o n t r o l o v e r mes sa g e) to

c r e a t e a n ew c o n t e x t w h i c h i n v o l v e s the o n e - w a y t r a n s m i s s i o n

of i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m an e x t e r n a l s o u r c e w h i c h mays t r a n s m i t

s o c i a l n o r m s o r e x p e c t a t i o n s ; b e o v e r t l y or c o v e r t l y p e r ­

s u a s i v e ; o r p r o v i d e t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r w i t h s t r u c t u r e d f a n t a ­

sies. In t h i s c o n t e x t a p e r s o n i s the r e c e i v e r of s u c h i n ­

f o r m a tion.

I n t h e c a s e of " i n f o r m a t i v e ” i n f o r m a t i o n ( n e w s c a s t s , a d ­

v e r t i s i n g , p o l i t i c a l s p e e c h e s , i n s t r u c t i o n s , etc.) t h e r e ­

c e i v e r is p a s s i v e a n d n o n - c r i t i c a l but a t t e n t i v e , l e a v i n g

h i m s e l f or h e r s e l f v u l n e r a b l e t o p e r s u a s i o n a n d s u b t l e m a ­

n i p u l a t i o n o r d i r e c t i o n .

T h i s c o m m u n i c a t i o n m a y be m e d i a t e d o r may t a k e p l a c e i n a

g r o u p s i t u a t i o n w h e r e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s p r i m a r i l y o n e - w a y .

In e i t h e r c a s e t h e r e c e i v e r h a s t h e f e e l i n g of b e i n g i n ­

s t r u c t e d p e r s o n a l l y t h o u g h t h i s is r e a l l y m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n

or g r o u p c o m m u n i c a t i o n . No i m m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e i s r e q u i r e d

of t h e r e c e i v e r , h o w e v e r , t h e r e c e i v e r i s l e a r n i n g to r e ­

s p o n d i n a w a y d i c t a t e d b y t he s e n d e r (eg. bu y t h i s , t h i n k

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r e c e i v e r b y g i v i n g o n e a s e n s e o f b e c o m i n g a b e t t e r p e r s o n

by a d h e r i n g t o t h e c o m m u n i c a t o r *s s u g g e s t i o n s . P a c h a r d h a s

n o t e d e i g h t " h i d d e n n e e d s " w h i c h p e r s u a d e r s a p p e a l to. T h e y

are: e m o t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , r e a s s u r a n c e o f wo r th , e g o g r a t i f i ­

cation, c r e a t i v e o u t l e t s , l o v e o b j e c t s , a s e n s e of p o w e r ,

roots, a n d i m m o r t a l i t y . 22 A d v e r t i s i n g s t r a t e g i e s w o r k b e ­

c a u s e t h e s e n e e d s a r e n o t s a t i s f i e d . T h e y e v o k e a t e m p o r a r y

f a l s e s e n s e of s a t i s f a c t i o n by o f f e r i n g f a l s e w a y s of n e e d s

g r a t i f i c a t i o n .

P a r a - s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , v i c a r i o u s i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e

l i v e s o f o t h e r s , t a k e s p l a c e i n t h i s c o n t e x t . W h e n i n d i v i d ­

u a l s

e n g a g e in p a r a - s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h c h a r a c t e r s

in th e t e l e v i s i o n p r o g r a m , t h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n s a l ­

low t h e v i e w e r s t he o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p l o r e s o c i a l

r o l e s a n d r e i n t e g r a t e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o the w i d e r

s o c i e t y , a s w e l l a s see t h e m s e l v e s w i t h g r e a t e r

i n s i g h t . 23

A p e r s o n may e n g a g e i n p a r a - s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a s a w a y

of t r y i n g t o s a t i s f y f u n d a m e n t a l n e e d s w h e n p u r e c o n t e x t s

a r e t h w a r t e d .

I f p e o p l e s * n e e d s (for s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ) a r e not f u l f i l l e d t o a r e a s o n a b l e e x t e n t , a s e a r c h f o r a l ­

t e r n a t e w a y s o f n e e d f u l f i l l m e n t w i l l e n s u r e . O n e

may f o r i n s t a n c e , try t o r e p l a c e s o c i a l i n t e r a c ­

t i o n w i t h s o m e f o r m o f * i n t e r a c t i o n • w i t h p e o p l e

in t h e ma ss m e d i a w o r l d . 24

22 In C h a r l e s U. L a r s o n , p e r s u afsiog. 3rd. od. ( C a l i f o r n i a :

W a d s w o r t h P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1983), pp. 8 0 - 8 3 .

23 J a m e s M. L i n t o n , " T h e N a t u r e of t h e V i e w i n g E x p e r i e n c e ;

T h e H i s s i n g V a r i a b l e in t h e E f f e c t s E q u a t i o n " , U n p u b ­

l i s h e d p a p e r , 1980, p. 13.

(29)

-T h e m a s s m e d i a o f f e r t h e i l l u s i o n o f f a c e - t o - f a c e c o m m u ­

n i c a t i o n o r s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h

l i t t l e or n o s e n s e of o b l i g a t i o n , e f f o r t , o r r e ­

s p o n s i b i l i t y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e s p e c t a t o r - . - T h e

c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e in e x p e r i e n c e o b v i o u s l y l i e s in

t h e lack, of e f f e c t i v e r e c i p r o c i t y - - - 1 h e a u d i e n c e

is f r e e t o c h o o s e a m o n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f f e r e d ,

b u t i t c a n n o t c r e a t e new o n e s . T h e i n t e r a c t i o n ,

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , i s o n e - s i d e d , n o n d i a l e c t i c a l ,

c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e p e r f o r m e r , a n d n o t s u s c e p t i b l e

o f m u t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

T h e s i m p l i c i t y a n d p r e d i c t a b l i l i t y of o u t c o m e s i n t e l e v i ­

s i o n p r o g r a m s r e d u c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of p o t e n t i a l l y t h r e a t ­

e n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , t h e r e b y m a k i n g them a n a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r ­

n a t i v e t o r e a l i n t e r a c t i o n .

7. I n t e r / i n t r a (AB) C o m m u n i c a t i o n

T h i s c o n t e x t m i x e s i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d i n t r a p e r s o n a l c o n ­

t exts. I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e r e i s i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n two o r

m o r e p e o p l e , b u t w h i l e f e e d b a c k i s p r e s e n t , i t t e n d s to be

i n t r a p e r s o n a l . I n t r a p e r s o n a l m e a n i n g s i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e

i n t e r p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t a n d i n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g ; o n e i s

e s s e n t i a l l y t a l k i n g to o n e s e l f a l o u d b u t t a k i n g c u e s f r o m

a n o t h e r p e r s o n * s s t a t e m e n t s .

s e a r c h . 5 : 2 ( Ap ril 1978): 153

25 D o n a l d H o r t o n a n d B. B i c h a r d Woh l, “ M a s s C o m m u n i c a t i o n

a n d P a r a - S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n : O b s e r v a t i o n o n I n t i m a c y a t

a D i s t a n c e ” , i n T n t e r / M e d i a . G a r y G u m p e r t a n d R o b e r t

C a t h c a r t e d s . , (New Y or k: O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1979)

(30)

T h e f o l l o w i n g t r a n s c r i p t e x a m p l i f i e s i n t e r / i n t r a (AD)

c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

A: I w a s o n m y w a y to t h e l i b r a r y y e s t e r d a y w h e n I r a n

i n to P aul.

B: I h a d a l o t o f w o r k to do y e s t e r d a y b u t d i d n ' t g o t o

t h e l ibr ar y .

A: oh. A n y w a y , he s e e m e d b o t h e r e d . I w o n d e r w h y ?

B: s p e a k i n g of b e i n g b o t h e r e d , I g o t a c a l l f r o m my s i s ­

ter y e s t e r d a y .

A: M y s i s t e r n e v e r c a l l s me.

F ee d ba c k is present, however, the p ar t i e s are not r e s p o n d i n g

directly t o each ot he r's statements. O n e ' s mind is cl os e d

to feedback and there is an i n s i n c e r e at t e m p t to s h a r e o ne' s

self.

8. I n t e r / e x t r a (AC) C o m m u n i c a t i o n

T h i s c o n t e x t m i x e s i n t e r p e r s o n a l a n d e x t r a p e r s o n a l c o m m u ­

n i c a t i o n . It i s i n t e r p e r s o n a l , b e c a u s e t h e r e is, o r s e e m s

to be, c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t w o i n d i v i d u a l s a n d f e e d b a c k i s

e x p e c t e d ; it is e x t r a p e r s o n a l b e c a u s e o n e p a r t y a s s u m e s

c o n t r o l of t h e m e s s a g e s a n d t h e r e s p o n s e s .

F e e d b a c k is p r e d i c t a b l e ; i t i s r i t u a l i z e d ( p r e d e t e r m i n e d

by s o c i e t a l s t r u c t u r e s o r p e r c e i v e d d i v i n e l a w s ) . T h e r e ­

c e i v e r r e l i n q u i s h e s c o n t r o l of t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r

Figure

Descriptive statistics Based on Reported HoursTABLE 1
TABLE 2Descriptive Statistics Based on Percentage of Time
Table 4 shows that
Pearson Correlation —TABLE 4 Self-Actualization with Activity
+3

References

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