Dupré, E., Pedrotti, L., & Arduino, S. Alpine Ibex Conservation Strategy - The Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps: status, potential distribution and management options for conservation and
sustainable development. 1-126. 2001. WWF International.
Keywords: 8IT/Alps/Capra ibex/conservation/development/distribution/growth rate/ibex/Large Herbivore Initiative/LHI/Malme/management/population size/reintroduction/
strategy/susceptibility/translocation
Abstract: This study presents the first comprehensive overview of the status of Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps, based on an extensive data collection used according to a standardized
methodology. For the first time, a thorough synthesis of information on the 69 Italian ibex colonies is available, covering traditional themes such as distribution, population size and growth rate, but also more specific issues such as the year and cause of origin, number of translocated ibexes, and type of management. Then, a comparison is made between current and potential ibex status and distribution, and implications for the conservation and management of the species are presented. The potential situation (distribution, size, density) is estimated by applying two models that assess the quality of ibex habitat and predict ibex potential distribution at the local scale for the entire Italian Alps. The two models had already been conceptually developed from data on different ibex populations living in the Italian Alps (one for the siliceous substratum and one for the calcareous-limestone-dolomite substratum), but, for the purpose of this study, they were redesigned to reflect the coarser scale of the data available for the whole Italian Alps. Their application to the study area according to the underlying lithological substratum revealed the gap between current and potential status and contributed to identifying conservation and management issues and developing recommendations for future reintroduction programs.
Alpine Ibex Conservation Strategy
The Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps:
status, potential distribution and management options
for conservation and sustainable development
Istituto Oikos
Università degli Studi dell’Insubria – Dipartimento di Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale
With the contribution of:
Pending
Gruppo Stambecco EuropaFederazione Italiana della Caccia
Eugenio Dupré, and Luca Pedrotti and Serena Arduino
DRAFT, JuneSeptember October 2001
Authors:
● Luca Pedrotti, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi" (National Wildlife Institute), Bologna, Italy. ● Serena Arduino, Istituto Oikos, Varese, Italy.
This study draws extensively from the Italian Ungulate Database and recognizes the following scientists as essential contributors:
● Damiano Preatoni, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Dipartimento di Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale, Unità di Analisi e Gestione della Biodiversità (State University of
Insubria, Biology Department, Biodiversity Analysis and Management Unit), Varese, Italy.
● Guido Tosi, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Dipartimento di Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale, Unità di Analisi e Gestione della Biodiversità (State University of
Insubria, Biology Department, Biodiversity Analysis and Management Unit), Varese, Italy.
● Silvano Toso, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi" (National Wildlife Institute), Bologna, Italy.
Project coordination:
● Serena Arduino, Istituto Oikos, Varese, Italy.
The study was funded by WWF International through the Large Herbivore Initiative (Project 9E0154.01).
The Italian Ungulate Database was funded by Ministero per le Politiche Agricole, Ministero dell’Ambiente – Servizio Conservazione della Natura and Federazione Italiana della Caccia (Ministry of Agricultural Policy, Ministry of Environment-Nature Conservation Service, and the Italian Hunting Federation).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract iii
Acronyms iv
AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgements v
1. 1.1 Problem statementt 1
1.2 Background 1
1.3 Project goals and objectives 2
1.4 Project design 3
1.5 Organization / Project team 4
2. Overview of ibex issues in the Italian Alps 4
2.1 The Italian Alps 4
2.2 Brief history 5
2.3 Current status 6
2.4 Ecological distribution 7
2.5 Main policy and decision-making levels 8
2.6 Hunting 8
2.7 Protected areas 10
2.8 Status of Alpine chamois and its relationship to ibex 112
3. Present status of ibex in the Italian Alps 13
3.1 Collection of data on existing Alpine ibex colonies: methodology 13
3.2 Present distribution 16
3.3 Population size 18
3.4 Status and evolution of population size 25
3.5 Hunting and numerical control 310
4. Assessing potential distribution of Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps 354
4.2 Methodology 35
4.2.1 Study area and management units 35
4.2.2 Ibex ecology 38
4.2.3 The database and the GIS 39
4.2.4 Data analysis 42
4.3 The predictive model for siliceous environment 43
4.3.1 Case study 43
4.3.2 Model implementation 45
4.4 The predictive model for limestone environment 49
4.4.1 Case study 49 4.4.2 Model implementation 52 4.5 Model validation 55 4.6 Model application 58 4.7 Synthesis 623 5. Conclusdiveing remarks 712 5.1 Conclusions 712 5.2 Recommendations 723
5.3 Drafting guidelines for a future conservation strategy of Alpine ibex in Italy 734
6. References 767
Annex 823
ABSTRACT
This study presents the first comprehensive overview of the status of Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps, based on an extensive data collection usingaccording to a standardized
methodology. For the first time, a thorough synthesis of information on the 69 Italian ibex colonies is available, covering traditional themes such as distribution, population size and growth rate, but also more specific issues such as the year and cause of origin, number of translocated ibexes, and type of management. Then, a comparison is made between actual current and potential ibex status and distribution, and implications for the conservation and management of the species are presenteddrawn. The potential situation (distribution, size, density) is estimated by applying from the application to the entire Italian Alps of two models that assess the quality of ibex habitat and predict ibex potential distribution at the local scale. The two models had already been conceptually developed from data on different ibex populations living in the Italian Alps (one for the siliceous substratum and one for the calcareous-limestone-dolomite substratum), but, for the purpose of this study , they were redesigned to reflect the coarser scale of the data available for the whole Italian Alps. Their application to the study area according to the underlying lithological substratum revealed the gap between current and potential status and contributed to identifying
conservation and management issues and developing recommendations for future reintroduction programmes.
EU European Union
GP Game Park
GPNP Gran Paradiso National Park
INFS Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica (National Wildlife IInstitute)
LCIE Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe
LHI Large Herbivore Initiative
MU Management Unit
NP National Park
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Several people contributed to this study, by both providing data and discussing various aspects of ibex conservation in the Italian Alps. The authors wish to thank them for their assistance.
Bruno Bassano Parco Nazionalea Gran Paradiso Sandro Bergamo Parco Naturale Alta Valsesia Pierre Bertieux Regione Valle d’Aosta
Radames Bionda Parco Naturale Alpe Veglia Devero
Carlo Borgo
Enrico Boscaini Ufficio Operativo Azienda Regionale delle Foreste Alto Garda Sandro Brugnoli Provincia di Trento
Giuseppe Canavese Parco Naturale Alpi Marittime
Marco Cantini Provincia di di Como
Ermanno Cetto Provincia di Trento Barbara Chiarenzi Istituto Oikos
Paolo Craveri Provincia di Cuneo
Michele Da Pozzo Parco Naturale Dolomiti d’Ampezzo
Renzo De Battisti Coordinamento Regionale Veneto Corpo Forestale dello Stato Paolo De Martin Foresta Demaniale di Tarvisio
Andrea De Matteis Università di Torino
Mauro Devalier Provincia di Belluno
Di Bernardo Foreste Demaniali di Tarvisio Lilia Domeneghetti Regione Valle d’Aosta
Renato Dotta
Heinrich Erhard Provincia di Bolzano
Luca Favalli Parco Naturale Dolomiti Friulane
Maria Ferloni Provincia di Sondrio
Pietro Ferraris Parco Naturale Alta Valsesia
Pietro Gatti Provincia di Lecco
Fulvio Genero Parco Naturale Prealpi Giulie
Marco Giovo
Romano Maséè Provincia di Trento
Silvano Mattedi Parco Naturale Dolomiti Friulane Piergiuseppe Meneguz Università di Torino
Benito Moriconi Comprensorio Alpino Alta Valtellina
Daniele Moroni Provincia di Sondrio
Giacomo Moroni Provincia di Bergamo
Andrea Mustoni Istituto Oikos
Paolo Orellier Regione Valle d’Aosta
Michele Ottino Parco Nazionale Gran Paradiso
Franco Perco Provincia di Pordenone
Aurelio Perrone
Stefano Piccinini
Lucia Pompilio
Alberto Ricci Parco Nazionale Stelvio
Luca Rotelli
Ettore Sartori Parco Naturale Paneveggio Pale di S.Martino Giovanni Scherini Istituto Oikos
Graziano Simonini Provincia di Sondrio Gianmaria Sommavilla Provincia di Belluno
Marco Testa Provincia di di Como
Andrea Vanotti Provincia di Sondrio
Vittorio Vigorita Regione Lombardia
Gilberto Volcan Parco Naturale Adamello Brenta Mathias Zoeschg Provincia di Bolzano.
Alpine Ibex Conservation Strategy
The Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps: status, potential distribution and management options for conservation and sustainable
development
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem statement
The Alps are a unique mountain ecosystem threatened by increasing human pressure. In this region, conservation and development issues have usually been addressed at the local or national levelscale; rarely at the scale of the entire ecosystem. What seems to have been missing is a regional approach and an overall strategy for the Alps. Only recently have attempts been made to look at the whole Alpine range beyond national boundaries: one is the work of the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe (LCIE); another is the ecoregional conservation initiative launched in 1999 by the WWF organizations of the Alps. These initiatives deserve to be encouraged and need to be integrated with others.
The LCIE sponsored a study of the large carnivores on of the Alps (bear, wolf, lynx) and was responsible for the development of action plans at European level. As part of the study, the current distribution and the areas suitable to large carnivores throughoutin the entire Alps were identified, as well as were potential corridors (Corsi et al. 1998). SA similar effort research for large herbivores hasdoes not yet exist been undertaken but it would nicely be extremely interestingcomplement the carnivore study.
This study on Alpine ibex is a first attempt to remedy the lack of information on herbivores, and this report describes its results for the entire Italian Alps. Far from being as
comprehensive as that of the LCIE on large carnivores, it is a first step towards an Alpine-wide map; it does no’t cover the entire Alps but atl least – and for the first time – it covers the whole Italian portion.
1.2 Background
The purpose of the study is to provide a tool that will assist in planning ibex management and distribution in the Italian Alps through an estimation of the extent of available habitat and a comparison of current and potential population. is to assess the present status of Alpine ibex in Italy, to develop a GIS-based model to evaluate the potential ibex winter distribution, to estimate the extent of available habitat, to compare current and potential population, and to provide a tool that will assist in planning ibex presence and management in the Italian Alps. To do so, two models that were already available (one for siliceous and one for calcareous substrata) were redesigned and extended to the entire Italian Alps.
The first model (predictive of the potential distribution of Alpine ibex over siliceous substratum in South Tyrol) was developed by the INFS (Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica, the Italian National Wildlife Institute) in cooperation with the public administration in of Bolzano (Pedrotti & Dupré 2000).
The second model (for the potential distribution of Alpine ibex on sedimentary/calcareous substratum) was also recently developed by Istituto Oikos as part of the feasibility study for the re-introduction of ibex in the south-western Dolomites (Paneveggio-Pale di S. Martino Natural Park and Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park) (Pedrotti et al. 2000).
These two substrata (siliceous-metamorphic and sedimentary-calcareous or limestone) represent the main and most common habitat types in the Alpine range. Both models are based on wintering areas because winter is considered the most critical period for ibex survival (Nievergelt 1966, Wiersema 1983a). Assessing the range and distribution of ibex potential wintering areas assists in predicting ibex potential range and driving sound management options. The validation of the two sub-models has proven excellent.
The two predictive models were applied to the whole Italian Alps, according to the different geological substrata, to compare actual current and potential ibex winter distribution. Potential wintering areas turned outwere determined to be much more extended and widely distributed than the actual ones: ibex populations are currently distributed over only about 5,000 km2 only, which represents a small portion of the estimated suitable areas, and the present current distribution ranges of ibex populations are is still small limited in all
However,It is important to state that the two original models were calibrated based on estimated from local data sets;, therefore, a simple extrapolation to the whole alpine range based on data sets collected aton a different scale may presented an intrinsic weakness that needed to be addressed and which is due to the fact that the covariates coefficients of the regression/classification functions were estimated from local spatial data sets acquired at a detailed map scale. Namely, the predictions of the models may have been give incorrect if the models had been applied to environmental data sets arranged (acquired) at a different scale level (i.e., less or more detailed), or may have been misleading if the characteristics of the spatial data set of the predictions area did not conform to the model ones.
For this reason,, for the purpose of this study the two original models were redesigned to yield more generally applicable results and, as a trade-off, they are less accurate when considered at at a small (i.e., small (i.e., more detailed)) scale.
1.3 Project goals and objectives
Project goal:
To contribute to the conservation and management of ibex in the Alps through an assessment of their current status (chapter 3) and through the implementation of two models of potential distribution models in the Italian Alps (chapter 4). The synthesis of this information will help to identify the conservation and management priorities and define courses of action at a broad levellarge scale (chapter 5).
Project objectives:
1. To collect preliminary ibex data available in Italy (distribution, population size, type of management of ibex colonies) (paragraphs 3.2., 3.3 and 3.5).
2. To digitise and harmonize data into GIS as necessary (chapter 3 and 4).
3. To define the current status (population size evolution and future trend) of ibex in the Italian Alps (paragraphs 3.3 and 3.4).
4. To briefly analyse briefly the types of ibex management in the Italian Alps (paragraphs 3.4 and 3.5).
5. To briefly review briefly other similar studies or habitat suitability models (paragraph 4.1).
6. To assess the areas ecologically suitable to ibex (i.e., / the potential distribution of ibex) in the Italian Alps (at a broad regional scale) (chapter 4).
7. To evaluate whether new field surveys are needed (paragraph 4.5).
8. To draft guidelines/action plan for future conservation and management strategies (including reintroductions) of ibex populations and their important habitat in the Italian Alps, while ensuring the compatible development of human activities (chapter 5).
In particular, chapter 3 is devoted to a thorough overview of ibex status in the Italian Alps. It refers to all the existing ibex colonies and presents an overall census, archive and database with information on year and cause of colony their origin, colony size and growth rate, type of management, etc. This wealth of information had never before been compiled and synthesized for the entire Italian portion and is thus a new contribution.real novelty.
the relevant environmental variables. This colony database is more detailed than that described in chapter 3.
1.4 Project design
The project was undertaken in five different phases:
Phase 1: Preliminary activities
● Contacts with relevant agencies, organisations, local experts and universities of the Italian Alps to
ensure their cooperation.
● Fine-tuning of the ibex models and definition of sample areas for the application extension of the
models to other areas.
Phase 2: Data collection
● Collection of environmental data (for the data already obtained and used for the Ungulate database of
INFS, seeking ofk new permission to re-use the material (for the data already obtained and used for the Ungulate database of INFS).
● Collection of the ibex data available in all Italian Alpine regions:
● data concerning distribution, population size and management of each Alpine colony; ● data concerning location and range of ibex wintering areas in the sample units. ● Evaluation of whether field surveys are needed to integrate the available data.
Phase 3: Data input and harmonisation
● Digitisation of data into GIS (for data obtained in hard copy only) and harmonisation of other digital
Phase 4: Data analysis
● Analysis of the status of ibex.
● Analysis of the types of ibex management.
● Review of similar studies of habitat evaluation models for ibex.
● Analysis of the areas ecologically suitable to ibex (at the regional scale). ● Validation of the models.
● Production of maps (species distribution and density, areas ecologically suitable to ibex and potential
connecting areas, priority areas).
Phase 5: Development of guidelines for an action plan
● Contacts with local administrations, organisations (GSE – European Ibex Group) and uUniversities of
the Italian Alpine regions to present and discuss preliminary results in order to outline regional management priorities.
● Production of a final report including the results of the data analysis and the management guidelines
defined in cooperation with the local agencies, taking into account the regional management needs that have emerged from the study.
1.5 Organisation/Project team
The project team is composed of the Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica, the Biodiversity Analysis and Management Unit of the State University of Insubria, the non-profit organisation Istituto Oikos. Istituto Oikos was the project promoter and was responsible for project management; INFS and the State University of Insubria were responsible for the technical implementation and the scientific supervision.
Financing for the project was provided by the Large Herbivore Initiative (LHI) through WWF International.
Co-financing to outline status, distribution and population size of all ungulates distributed in the Italian Alps, and to compile a database for the Italian ungulates was provided by the Italian Ministry of Agricultural Policy, te, the Italian Ministry for Environment and Federazione Italiana della Caccia (FIdC, the main national hunting association).
2 . OVERVIEW OF IBEX ISSUES IN THE ITALIAN ALPS
2.1 The Italian Alps
Italy is a mountainous country with about 35% of its 300,000 km2 lying above 2000m. The Italian Alps are arc-shaped and form the country’s northern border with France,
Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. They can be divided into three contiguous sections: 1) the Western western Alps running south from Aosta almost to the Gulf of Genoa; 2) the cCentral Alps stretching east from Aosta as far as the Brenner pass between Italy and Austria and . They includinge Italy’s highest mountains (Monte Cervino, 4,478m, and Monte Rosa, 4,634m ) and of course Mont Blanc, the highest peak of the entire Alps, (4,808 m), the highest peak of the entire Alps); and 3) the eEastern Alps extending east from beyond the BBrenner to Trieste, and includinge the Dolomites.
According to the boundaries of the Alpine Convention, tThe Italian Alps cover 45about ,39052,600 km2, from the Imperia province to the west, to the province at of Trieste to the
east (but the study area of this project is slightly smaller). Fourty-oneTwenty-eight percent of the Alpsir land area lies below 1000m;, 4739% lies between 1000 and 2000m, and the remaining 215% is found above 2000m (Fig. 2.1). The three sections, however, are not homogeneous. T: the Wwestern Alps (Piemonte and Valle d’Aosta regions) have higher peaks on average;. h Here, only 21% of the land area is below 1000m while 34% is above 2000m. I; in the cCentral Alps, 31% of the area lies below 1000m and 27% above 2000m. I; and in the Eastern eastern Alps, with the lowest average elevation, 32% is found below 1000m and only 15% above 2000m.
Figure 2.1 - Distribution of elevation in the Italian Alps: highest massifs are mainly located in the north-western and central portions. The red lines represent the borders of the management units for ibex
conservation and management (see par. 3.1 for further explanations).
2.2 Brief history
Ibex (Capra ibex) is distributed in Eurasia and Ethiopia in extremely fragmented areas corresponding to main mountain ranges.
Systematicss of Genus Capra is still controversial due to the different classification criteria in use. Capra ibex is subdivided into the following subspecies: Capra i. ibex, the Alpine ibex, distributed all over the Alps; C. i. sibirica, the Siberian ibex, present in Asia, the Russian Turkestan and Central central Siberia, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, Kashmir, a limited portion of Tibet, Chitral (Pakistan) and north-western Afghanistan; C. i. nubiana, the Nubian ibex, in Northern northern Egypt, Northnorth-eastern Sudan, Oman and some parts of Arabia, Israel and Jordan; C. i. walie, the Walie ibex, in the Semien massif; C. i. caucasica, in the Westernwestern Caucasian tur or Kuben tur (C. i. severtzovi, according to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951). Recently a subdivision into 5 different species has been proposed, whereby and ibex populations presently occurring in northern Africa and Asia at present would be are usually treated as species distinct from Capra ibex (C. nubiana, C. sibirica, C. walie).
The ancestors of Genus Capra appeared between the end of Miocene and the beginning of Pliocene in Centralcentral-western Asia. Subsequently, according to Geist’s hypothesis (1985, 1987), four radiations originating in the Caucasus led from Ammotragus to the current species of Genus Capra. The most recent one led, during the Riss glaciation, led to
today’s form of Capra ibex.
During the last glaciation (Riss) ibex ended up occupiedying their most extended ranges in the Alps and in other mountain areasranges, both in Alpine and non-Alpine countries: Spain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, and Germany, Slovenia and Croatia up to Montenegro, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. In Italy, past distribution reached the southern regions of Campania, Basilicata, Puglia and perhaps Sardinia. After the last ice age, ibex disappeared from the territories surrounding the Alps as soon as forests recovered their former, larger ranges, as showed by Neolithic findings in the upper high Po Rriver Bbasin.
After centuries of active extermination mainly due to intensive hunting, at the beginning of the XIX century only about 50-100 individuals of Alpine ibex survived in the Gran Paradiso massif (Valle d’Aosta region, Italy), due to the protection granted by the Royal Savoia Royal Family. Current ibex populations found inon the Alps are generally restricted to mountain areas above the tree line and are the result of both translocations from the original core of 100 individuals and natural colonisation. Re-introductions began at the end of the XIX century in the Swiss Alps, while in Italy they have been significant only in the last 20-30 years. These efforts, together with spontaneous migration from adjoining
countries, have increased the number of areas inhabited by ibex, although the distribution is still discontinuous (Stüwe & Nievergelt 1991).
With current conservation and management practices the status of Alpine ibex is now considered safe and the species is listed as Lower Risk in the 1996 IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals.
2.3 Current status
Nowadays Alpine ibex is currently distributed throughoutall over the Alps due to re-introduction projects and natural population dispersion. Up to 1990, ibex reintroduction involved 175 different Alpine areas sites were interested by ibex immissionintroduction.! Ibex distribution starts in goes from tthe western Maritime Alps (Argentera massif) in the west and continues eastward to the Stirian limestone Alps in Austria and the eEastern Karawanken Alps on the border between Austria and Slovenia, covering all Alpine countries.
In 1993, At present, 31,000 ibex live in the Alps (Weber 1994, Pedrotti & Lovari 1999). Populations have been growing steadily since the 1960s, showing a mean annual growth rate between 3% and 6% (Table 2.1). About 15,000 ibex wereare estimated in Switzerland, 9700 in Italy, 3,200 in Austria, 3,300 in France, 250 in Slovenia and, and 220 in Germany (Shackleton 1997).
On the whole, 1455 different colonies are are estimated in the Alps (Giacometti 1991, Weber 1994).
There exist about 1456 colonies; Oof these, 50% of the individuals and 33% of the colonies are found in Switzerland. However, a wide gap between actual and potential distribution is still present in a large portion of the Alps, although even if with major differences among the Alpine countries. In Switzerland and Austria, for example, all suitable ibex habitat is considered occupied; in France the policy for ibex conservation is to continue re-introducing and restocking populations in appropriate habitat; in Germany only a limited portion of the country provides suitable ibex habitat and the species has a patchy and isolated distribution; and in Italy between 1985 and 2000 ibex increased from 5,100 to 13,000 individuals with and more than 50% (6,900) are found within protected areas.
Table 2.1 – Increase of Alpine ibex population in the Alpine range (1962-1993).
Year 1962 1977 1983 1987 1993
Abundance 6,500 15,000 18,000 23,000 31,000
2.4 Ecological distribution
Ibex is a good climber, well adapted to rocky, steep and arid environments and to a fibreer-rich diet. These characteristics, together with a preference for open habitats, make ibex a typical glacier follower like other wild Caprinae. Most habitat suitable to ibex is located both in sub-Mediterranean climate and continental regions, where dry climate characterizes inner valleys.
In the Alps, ibex live mainly above the tree line, visiting lower elevations only in winter and spring. C (chamois, on the contrary, are more adaptable and range from submontane, mixed broadleaf woodlands around 500m or lessower in winter, to alpine areas in summer).
The most important ecological constraints to ibex spatial distribution are the elevation of the rocky montanemountain regions and the type of vegetation available type. Ibex occupy elevation ranges between 1,600 and 2,800m during winter and between 2,300 and 3,200m during summer. Rock cliffs and alpine meadows are most frequented throughout the year. Wintering areas, situated at intermediate elevation, are steep rugged south-exposed slopes (35°-45°) with grassy vegetation,, rugged and interspersed with rocks. Rock cliffs and alpine meadows are the land cover categories most frequented throughout the year. Rock vegetation and scree at the highest elevation are frequented exclusively during summer. Closed and continuous forests and glaciers interfere with ibex dispersal and slow down the colonization of new areas.
Alpine ibex’ and Alpine chamois’ ranges overlap substantially, but because the former tends to keep stay at higher altitudes, competition between them is unlikely to occur (Pfeffer & Settimo 1973, Schröder & Kofler 1984) (see also 2.8). Exceptions are ibex colonies introduced in atypical locations, wheren the two species completely overlap during winter (Kofler & Schröder 1985, 1990).
The ibex dispersion strategy when colonizing new areas is quite slow. Due to their ecological constraints, wWinter ranges characterize ibex as an insular species. are used in a "traditional" way, especially by females (Pedrotti 1995). When colonizing new areas, ibex dispersion strategy is quite slow. Their ecological constraints characterize ibex as an insular species. Ibex do not disperse as fast as like chamois or roe deer, but tend to remain in their traditional ranges while increasing their density (Gauthier et al. 1994). Indeed, only when a certain population density level is reached will new areas will new areas be colonized by young, pioneer individuals, but in winter these individuals stage actual annual migrations as they tend to return to their original wintering areas. Wintering areas are thus used in a "traditional" way, especially by females (Pedrotti 1995), and Ccolonization of new areas becomes permanent only one generation later, with the offspring of pioneer females. The whole process takes 10-15 years (Nievergelt 1966, Gauthier & Villaret 1990).
2.5 Main policy and decision-making levels
In Italy, at the national level, the Ministry of Agricultural Policy and the Ministry of Environment are responsible for the management and protection policies of wildlife. Regional and provincial services, as well as national and regional park agencies, are responsible for local management. In both cases (local administrations and protected areas) the advisory agency is the Italian National Wildlife Institute (INFS).
Several independent groups have a strong interests in Alpine ibex conservation, such as the European Ibex Group and the Friends of the Rhaetian Ibex.
2.6 Hunting
to hunt in only one unit. Within each Comprensorio, hunting of wild ungulates is regulated according to annual harvest plans which specify the sex and age class of the individuals to be hunted. These plans are developed on the basis of the numerical evolution of the populations, determined through censuses (exhaustive or by sample areas).
The INFS has recently developed a data management system (Ungulate Database, Pedrotti & Dupré 2001) containing all the information available for hunting units and protected areas on:
● size and characteristics of area;
● size, structure and evolution of the ungulate populations from 1996 to 2000; ● management strategies adopted (harvest plans, actual harvest).
This is an unparalleled source for information on hunting practices in Italy.
The mMean extension of the 49 Comprensori in the western Italian Alps (Piemonte, Valle d’Aosta) is 41,710 ha (min 8,260 ha, max 96,050 ha, sd 23,235 ha); in the western-central Italian Alps (Lombardia, some provinces of Veneto) the mean extension of the 39 Comprensori is 38,360 ha (min 8,210, max 126,680, sd 24,960 ha). In the central-eastern Italian Alps (Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), instead, the administration of hunting activities mainly follows central European criteria and the basic management unit is the "Riserva Comunale di Diritto" (Community Reserve) open to the access of residents only. The extension of these 845 Community Reserves is a great deal smaller than that of the Comprensori, with a mean value of 2,970 ha (min 73 ha, max 29,365 ha, sd 3,000 ha).
Figure 2.2 – Basic hunting management units in the Italian Alps (black lines). In red the boundaries of the various provinces; in dark green the protected areas.
The dDensity of ungulate hunters is higher in the central-eastern Alps and in the Province of Torino (Fig. 2.3). T: this is usually directly correlated to the size of hunted populations and of the hunting bag. In the eastern Alps and in some Comprensori of the Province of Brescia hunting of roe and red deer is also undertaken with hounds.
Figure 2.3 – Hunters’ density in the management units (Comprensori) of the Italian Alps (from Carnevali et al. 2000).
2.7 Protected areas
In Italy there exist Ddifferent types of areas in which hunting is not allowed exist in Italy, according to different pieces of legislation. The national legislation on protected areas (L. 394/91), for example, establishes National Parks and Regional Natural Parks; in the latter, any hunting activity is prohibited. , in accordance with national legislation. Exceptions are the Natural Parks of the Autonomous Provinces of Trento and Bolzano: here the 8 existing parks are here under a separate local hunting legislation and hunting takes place
according to the different Community Reserves system as in the like in the other part of the remaining provinceial territory. By law hunting is also prohibited in state forests under both national and regional jurisdiction.
The national legislation on hunting and the protection of homeothermic fauna (L. 157/92) calls for hunting-free areas called "Oasi di Protezione" (protection areas) and "Zone di Ripopolamento e Cattura" (areas of repopulation/re-stocking and capture). These are placed under provincial jurisdiction and are managed according to 5-year wildlife management plans (Piani Faunistico-Venatori). At the end of the 5-year period, On the expiration date tthese areas can be placed under a different type of land tenure; , however, at least 20% of the land area in each Alpine province must be closed to hunting (protected areas and state forests also are included in concur to this percentage).
Figure 2.4 – Distribution of protected areas in the Italian Alps. In
dark green national and natural parks; in light green "oasi di protezione" and state forests (Foreste Demaniali); in red boundaries of management units for ibex conservation and management (see par. 3.1). for further explanations).
Of the 45,390 km2 of the Italian Alpine area under consideration for this study, 21.8% (9,900 km2) is under some form of protection (24.7% in the western Alps and 20.5% in the
central-eastern Alps). The distribution of the various types of protected areas, however, is markedly different in the two sectors of the Alps (Fig. 2.4). I: in the western Alps, 50% of the 3,430 km2 under protection is National or Natural Parks and the remaining 50% is Oasi di protezione and state forests. In the central-eastern Alps, 74% of 6,470 km2i is
National and Natural Parks, whereas only 26% is Oasi di protezione and Foreste Demaniali.
2.8 Status of Alpine chamois and its relationship to Alpine ibex
The Ungulate Database made it possible to compile a satisfying overview of the current distribution and status of Alpine chamois. Given that ibex and chamois ranges overlap (see 2.4), the information currently available on chamois distribution and abundance represents one key factor to take into account when developing a future strategy for the
reintroduction of ibex on the Italian Alps.
Alpine chamois is today unevenly distributed throughout the Italian Alps , even if with different density levels (Fig. 2.5): it is evenly present from the Friuli Venezia Giulia region in the east to the Province of Imperia in the west, and only sporadically present in the Province of Savona, the south-western limit of its range (Tosi & Lovari 1997). The Alpine chamoisIts range extends to 41,130 km2, or 14% of the national territory.
The total chamois population in the Italian Alps is estimated around 123,000 individuals, with a mean density of 4.3 individuals/100 ha calculated on the total extension of the areas suitable to chamois (about 27,000 km2). About 19,500 individuals (or 16% of the entire Italian population) are found in 5 protected areas (the Maritime Alps and the Dolomiti
Ampezzane Natural Parks, and the Gran Paradiso, Stelvio and Dolomiti Bellunesi National Parks). The largest population sizes are recorded infor the autonomous provinces of Trento and Bolzano and infor the Piemonte region, where 62% of all Italian chamois are found (37% only in the Trentino-Alto Adige region only).
Chamois densities (calculated only on the the extension of arareas suitable to chamois in each province) are generally higher in the Lecco, Bergamo, Trento and Bolzano provinces (5.5-8.6 chamois/100 ha). Overall highest densities (7.4-10 chamois/100 ha) are found in certain protected areas and private hunting preserves, probably due to a population "compression" consequent toresulting from hunting in adjacent areas and from to the fact that almost all landbase is suitable. The absolute highest densities are recorded for GPNP, Valle d’Aosta side (18 chamois/100 ha) and the Maritime Alps Natural Park (12 chamois/100 ha). Excluding the large national and natural parks, the highest densities are found in the central-eastern Alps (Fig. 2.5), especially in the Trento and Bolzano provinces (concentrating the highest densities in the western part of the Trentino region).
Figure 2.5 – Distribution and density of chamois populations in the Italian Alps; borders of management units for ibex conservation and management are outlined in green (see par. 3.1. for further explanations).
Chamois hunting is undertaken in almost all Italian Alps; only in the provinces of Savona, Como, Brescia, Verona, Gorizia and Trieste is is the species is not hunted. In the 1998-99 period 9,000-11,000 chamois were annually harvested (7-9% of the total population, 60% of which in the Trentino-Alto Adige region only). The total number of hunted chamois increased progressively between 1996 and 1999 (respectively 7,617, 8,817, 8,764 and 10,798 individuals harvested). In 1999 hHarvest was numerically significant in the following provinces (1999): Verbania (313 chamois), Torino (418), Sondrio (493), Belluno (768), Aosta (1,007), Trento (2,458) and Bolzano (4,147).
3. PRESENT STATUS OF IBEX IN THE ITALIAN ALPS
This chapter provides the first complete overview of the status of ibex in the Italian Alps and is based on the Ungulate Database. Local information has been available all along, but never before was it compiled onat such a llarge scale and with standardized methodology.
3.1. Collection of data on existing Alpine ibex colonies: methodology
In 1998-2000 the status of ibex colonies in the Italian Alps was investigated by an extensive review of available literature and by direct contacts with provincial, regional and protected area agencies to gather all the information related to origin, distribution, abundance and evolution of their ibex populations. This information was subsequently refined, corrected and validated by direct contacts and data exchange with researchers and local experts (for a detailed list of the people involved please see
AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgements).
The colonies’ distribution ranges were reported on paper maps at 1:25000-50000 scale. Boundaries of colony areas were then digitised in Universal Transverse Mercatore (UTM, zone 32N) coordinates using the geographic information system ArcI/info for NT Windows 2.07 and ArcV-view 3.1. In some cases, provincial agencies and local experts directly supplied distribution ranges of colonies in numerical form. All data were harmonized into a single coverage in shapefile format (see Figg. A.1 and A.2 inAnnex).
The polygon data set was joined, by means of an ID colony number, to an Access database file containing all the information collected on each colony (Fig. 3.1). For each ibex colony the following data were collected:
● ID number; ● colony name; ● management unit; ● province(s); ● year of origin;
● number of translocated individualsbexes;
● years, release sites and numbers of translocated individualsbexes; ● colony size (in 1984-85, 1994-95 and present);
● distribution (names of principal massifs and valleys in the colony’s range); ● notes on colony growth;
● type of management;
● person responsible for data supply and validation.
Figure 3.1 – The insertion mask for the ibex colonies’ database.
The Italian Alpine range was subdivided into 17 ibex management units (MUs) including areas with similar habitat characteristics (Fig. 3.2 and Table 3.1). Such units were defined to include populations which are relatively isolated and with minimum chance of exchange of individuals from one unit to the other. By "Ppopulation" is defined as meant a group
of individuals of the same species that lives in a common territory and are that can be characterized by the same demographic parameters.
For this reason, MU boundaries were defined following natural boundaries like main valley bottoms and lowest alpine passes, which are deemed to be the main ecological barriers to ibex movements and thus the features limiting the populations’ ranges. The southernmost boundaries towards the Po plaine were set along the ideal line joining all the 1000m contour lines. Needless to say, given that ibex does not recognize administrative boundaries, in many cases ibex MUs should in many cases extend beyond national borders to include entire populations. This was not attempted as part of this study, but its obvious implications should be kept in mind.to consideration.
Several MUs currently contain ibex colonies completely separate and without exchanges of individuals among them. The MU’s shape and extension were defined on the basis of the species’ potential distribution to allow a comparison with actual distribution, and to support the assist the development of an overall strategy for ibex conservation and management. Average MU extension is 2,670 km2; min extension MU No. 2 "Alpi Marittime" with 930 km2, max extension MU No. 15 "Dolomiti" with 6,100 km2 (Table 3.1). Each MU was
Figure 3.2 – The Italian Alps were subdivided into 17 management units (MUs) that minimize population exchange (red lines); in light green the present distribution of Alpine ibex colonies.
Table 3.1 – Size and administrative boundaries of the 17 management units into which the Italian Alps were subdivided for ibex population management purposes.
No. Management Unit (MU) Total surface (km2)
(km2) Provinces
1 Imperia 1218 Imperia, Cuneo
2 Alpi Marittime 929 Cuneo
3 V. Maira – Orsiera 3166 Cuneo, Torino
4 V. Lanzo - G. Paradiso - M. Bianco 3594 Torino, Aosta
5 Sx Aosta – M. Rosa - V. Anzasca 3587 Aosta, Biella, Vercelli, Verbania 6 V. Formazza - V. Grande 1339 Verbania, Varese
7 Alpi Lepontine 1292 Como, Sondrio
8 Alpi Retiche - Bernina 1042 Sondrio
9 Alpi Orobie 3190 Lecco, Bergamo, Sondrio, Brescia
10 Adamello 2279 Brescia, Trento
11 Brenta 2936 Trento, Bolzano, Brescia, Verona
12 Alpi Retiche - Ortles - Cevedale 3255 Sondrio, Brescia, Trento, Bolzano
13 V. Venosta - Brennero 2484 Bolzano
14 V. PusteriaPusteria 1547 Bolzano
15 Dolomiti 6104 Bolzano, Trento, Belluno
16 Alpi Carniche - Alpi Giulie 4552 Udine, Pordenone, Belluno, Bolzano 17 Asiago – Grappa 2876 Trento, Verona, Vicenza, Belluno, Treviso
WESTERN ALPS (1-6) 13833
CENTRAL ALPS (7-13) 16478
EASTERN ALPS (14-17) 15078
TOTAL 45389
The following ancillary thematic coverages were harmonised and stored into a GIS project in Universal Transverse Mercatore (UTM, zone 32N) coordinates:
● management units (MU) for ibex populations ● province’s boundaries;
● hunting management units; ● protected areas;
● main roads; ● main rivers; ● Corine landcover;
● digital terrain model (250m resolution).
3.2 Present distribution
At present about 69 colonies are found in the Italian Alps ranging over 5,000 km2 (Fig. 3.3). In some portions of the western and central Alps, distribution of populations has
Reintroduction programmes started in the 1980s, except for translocation into the Maritime Alps Natural Park (the former Valdieri-Entracque Real Hunting Preserve) in 1921 and some pioneer attempts in the Valle d’Aosta region before the 1980s (see Annex).
In Italy, currentactual Alpine ibex distribution is still quite fragmented and far from meeting itsthe potentiall one. Ibex are present in all Alpine regions, from Friuli–Venezia Giulia to Piemonte, and in all Alpine Provinces (15) with the exception of Trieste, Gorizia, Varese, Biella and Imperia (probably lacking habitat suitable to ibex) (Fig. 3.4). The following figures provide evidence of the scattered ibex distribution: 70% of individuals (9,200) is found in three provinces only (Aosta, Torino and Sondrio); 43% (5,600) are found in three parks, namely the Gran Paradiso National ParkNP and Maritime Alps Natural Park in Piemonte and the Stelvio National Park in Lombardia; and 30% (4,000) are in the Gran Paradiso National Park alone. Furthermore, most of the newborn colonies are still characterized by low numbers and densities.
Figure 3.4 – Alpine ibex presence in the different Italian provinces in 2000. In dark green, larger populatin size; light green shows the presence of fragmented small populations and lower population size (less than
500 individuals); initials of provinces are showned (seecfr. Fig. 3.3).
3.3 Population size
As already mentioned, about 13,000 ibex are currently found in the Italian Alps, divided among about 69 colonies. For a detailed description of of the distribution, origin, size and evolution of each colony see the Annex.
Overall, about 6,800 ibex, or 51% of the total, areis found within protected areas where hunting is prohibited (National and Natural Parks, State Forests).
Generally, larger populations are concentrated in six provinces: Cuneo, Torino, Vercelli, Aosta, Sondrio and Bolzano (Table 3.2). However, the single largest colonies are localized in (in brackets the province’s name): Gran Paradiso National Park, Lanzo Valleys (Torino and and Aosta), Stelvio National Park (Sondrio and and BBrescia), Maritime Alps Natural Park (Cuneo), Valtournanche (Aosta), Monzoni–Marmolada Massif (Trento and, Belluno), Pelline Valley, St. Marcel and Rhèemes Valleys (Aosta), Monte Rosa Massif (Aosta, Vercelli and, Verbania), Orobie Alps (Bergamo, Como and, Sondrio), Livigno territory (Sondrio), Palla Bianca Peak and Tessa Group (Bolzano) (Fig. 3.5).
Table 3.2 – Alpine ibex population size in the Italian regions in , referred to the 1999-2000. period.
REGION POPULATION SIZE
Piemonte 3,6975
Valle d’Aosta 5,6435
Lombardia 2,134400
Total central-western Alps 11,474740
Trentino–Alto Adige 99856
Veneto 31600
Friuli–Venezia Giulia 450
Total central-eastern Alps 1,75245
Figure 3.5 – Ibex distribution and mean population density in the Italian Alps (1999-2000).
A comparison between the central-western and the central-eastern Italian Alps shows that abundance is seven times higher in the former, outlining how current abundance distribution of ibex populations is unbalanced (the central-western Alps include Piemonte, Valle d’Aosta and Lombardia; the central-eastern Alps include Trentino–Alto Adige, Veneto and Friuli–Venezia Giulia).
A first rough analysis of suitable ibex wintering areas (Ungulate BatabaseDatabase) showed that they are wider in the central-western Alps than in the central-eastern Alps (2,390 km2 vs. 2,050 km2); also ibex actual distribution and abundance are higher in the central-western Alps. Mean densityies, in relation to weighed to the extent of potential areas, isare
1.3 ibex/100 ha in central-western Alps (0.9 ibex/100 ha without the GPNP population) and 0.25 ibex/100 ha in central-eastern Alps. Mean densityies, in relation to weighed to the extent of potential wintering areas, isare 4.8 ibex/100 ha in central-western Alps (3.6 ibex/100 ha without GPNP population) and 0.8 ibex/100 ha in central-eastern Alps (Pedrotti et
al. 2001) (Table 3.3). Highest population densities are found in the provinces of Aosta, Lecco and Vercelli (2.5-2.8 ibex/100 ha); however, Aosta mean density dropsfalls to 0.8
ibex/100 ha if GPNP is not considered. Torino and Bergamo reach densities between 1 and 2 ibex/100 ha. Pordenone, Sondrio, Udine and Cuneo haveare characterized by more than 0.5 ibex/100 ha, while the other provinces have less. are below this value.
A rough habitat suitability model developed in a previous work (Pedrotti et al. 2001) outlines ranges and distribution of potential ibex wintering areas. This model represents an extremely simplified version of reality and has to be considered at a large scale; however it contributes to a comparative overview of the present and potential situation for the whole Italian Alps. The model assesses winter potential ranges on the basis of the values of elevation, aspect and slope, and assesses global potential distribution assuming all un-forested areasareas not forested aboveover 2000m are suitable summer habitat. Considering the extent and distribution of potential wintering areas derived from the application of the model, it is possible to compute a "mean winter density" for each province as the ratio between current abundance and the extent (in km2) of potential winter areas.
Ibex population of the Gran Paradiso National Park has a winter density of 12.6 ibex/100 ha. The provinces of Vercelli, Torino and Aosta (except the GPNP population) show winter densities between 4 and 8 ibex/100 ha. Lecco, Pordenone, Sondrio, Bergamo, Udine and Cuneo have a density between 2 and 3 ibex/100 ha; Verbania and Brescia about 1 ibex/100 ha and Bolzano, Trento and Belluno between 0.5 and 1.
Without more rigorous predictive models based on objective data and sound statistical procedures, these results provide at least ainteresting orders of magnitude of reference for comparison with the actual situation.
Considering a precautionary density level in wintering areas of 7 ibex/100 ha, the Italian Alps could host at least 30,000 ibex, as opposed to the 13,000 currently present (43% of the potential), of which about 17,000 in the central-western Alps, and about 14,000 in the central-eastern Alps. Having used very conservative potential values, in the Valle d’Aosta region - due to the high actual population density of the GPNP – the difference between real and potential density is even positive. Vercelli, Torino, Sondrio, Lecco and Pordenone are the only provinces where current ibex density is as high as 40% of its the potential one or higherabove. In Cuneo, Bergamo and Udine ibex density values areis between 25% and 40% of its the ppotential ones, while and in the remaining provinces the density isvalues are between 5% and 12% of the potential ones.
Table 3.3 and Fig. 3.5 confirm how present distribution and abundance of Alpine ibex in Italy are still under below their potential values.
Table 3.3 – Ibex distribution and population size in the provinces of the Italian Alps (1998-2000). Density was calculated in relation to on potential wintering ranges (km2) (see text) for further explanations). Potential
abundance was set at a conservative mean winter density of 7 ibex/100 ha. The last column (Difference %) shows the percentage of present population size against its the estimated potential one. The number of reintroduced colonies is at times expressed aswith a decimal numberfraction (e.g., 3.5) whenn the colony was established by man-made releases after a few individuals had arrived spontaneously but the colony was established by man-made releases.
Province Number of
colonies reintroduced Number of coloniepopulations Population size Density /100 ha Winter potential distribution (km2) Potential abundance Difference % Cuneo 6 3 66870 0.55 284 1988 34% Torino 6 3.5 2178 1.40 462 3234 67% GPNP 1 0 765 2.24 114 798 96% Rest 5 3.5 1413 1.17 348 2436 58% Vercelli 1 1 600 2.80 87 609 99% Verbania 5 2 2510 0.39 236 1652 15% Biella 0 0 0 -- 22 154
--Aosta 12 5 56430 2.55 635 4445 127% GPNP 1 0 3245 8.89 205 1435 226% Rest 11 5 2398 0.83 430 3010 80% Como 1 1 41 -- 27 189 --Lecco 1 1 90 2.57 27 189 48% Bergamo 2 1 36070 1.34 140 980 38% Brescia 5 4 181200 0.3300 178 1246 156% Sondrio 9 3.5 1499380 0.8175 468 3276 462% CENTRAL-WESTERN ALPS 11474379 1.321 2566 17962 643% Bolzano 11 2 71820 0.20 957 6699 11% Trento 4 4 26870 0.15 526 3682 7% Belluno 3 2 31600 0.313 405 2835 11% Vicenza 0 0 0 -- 9 63 --Pordenone 1 1 150 0.88 49 343 44% Udine 2 2 300 0.59 116 812 37% CENTRAL-EASTERN ALPS 175240 0.25 2062 14434 12% TOTAL 69 365 13226119 0.83 4628 32396 40% without GPNP 68 365 9216109 0.61 4309 30163 30%
As shown in Table 3.4, the 17 ibex MUs were grouped to form three sections of the Italian Alps of comparable extension: the western Alps (MU 1-6) of 13,830 km2, the central
Alps (MU 7-13) of 16,480 km2, and the eastern Alps (MU 14-17) of 15,080 km2. In these three sectors, population density and size decrease from west to east: 9,300 ibex (71%) are
estimated for the western Alps, 2,800 (21%) in the central Alps and 1,075 (8%) in the eastern Alps (Fig. 3.6). Summer density is respectively 1.6, 0.5 and 0.3 ibex/100 ha; winter density is 6.0, 1.7 and 0.8 ibex/100 ha. In the western sector, densities remain theare highest even when the historical colony of the GPNP is excluded (summer density: 1.0 ibex/100 ha; winter density: 4.3 ibex/100 ha).
The highest population sizesdensities (>1000 individuals) are found in MUs "Valli di Lanzo – Gran Paradiso – M.te Bianco", "Sx Aosta – M.te Rosa – Valle Anzasca" and "Alpi Retiche – Ortles – Cevedale". Populations above 500 individuals are also found in MUs "Alpi Marittime" and "Dolomiti". Smaller populations below 150 individuals are found in MUs "Alpi Lepontine", "Adamello", "Val Formazza", "Val Pusteria" and "Brenta".
There exist 69 colonies overall: 31 in the western sector, 26 in the central sector and 12 in the eastern sector. Of the 69 colonies, 2 are autochthonous, 36 were created through reintroductions and 31 originated from natural colonization. Of the colonies originated from natural recolonizsation, 11 came from Italian populations, 3 from French ones, 11 from Swiss ones and 6 from Austrian ones. In the western, central and eastern sectors, respectively 42%, 58% and 67% of colonies were created through reintroductions.
Summer density, calculated over the entire summer area available in each MU, varies from 0.1 to 5.8 ibex/100 ha. Not considering the GPNP, the highest summer densities are between 0.8 and 1.6 ibex/100 ha and are found in MUs "Valli di Lanzo – Gran Paradiso – M.te Bianco", "Alpi Marittime", "Sx Aosta – M.te Rosa – Valle Anzasca" and "Alpi Orobie".
Winter density, also calculated over the entire wintering area available in each MU, varies from 0.3 to 12.4 ibex/100 ha. The highest winter densities (3.2-12 ibex/100 ha) are found in MUs "Valli di Lanzo – Gran Paradiso – M.te Bianco", "Alpi Marittime", "Sx Aosta – M.te Rosa – Valle Anzasca" and "Alpi Retiche – Ortles - Cevedale".
The average population density per MU, calculated over the land area currently occupied by each colony, more accurately describes the present situation and varies between 1 and 7.3 ibex/100 ha (GPNP).
Table 3.4 – Ibex distribution and population size in the ibex management units of the Italian Alps (1998-2000). Density was estimated according to summer and winter potential ranges (km2) (see text) for further
explanations). "Reintro" indicates the number of re-introduced colonies; "Den/distr" indicates the density calculated on omputed on the present distribution range.
No. Management Unit Total surface
(km2)
(km2)
Colony
surface coloniesNo. of Reintro Size density /100 Summer ha Winter density /100 ha Den/ distr /100 ha 1 Imperia 1218 0 0 0 0 2 Alpi Marittime 929 285 3 1 606 1.4 7.7 2.1 3 V. Maira – Orsiera 3166 282 6 4.5 368 0.3 1.2 1.3 4 V. Lanzo - G. Paradiso - M. Bianco 3594 1095 9 1.5 6120 3.1 12.4 5.6 4a GPNP 707 551 1 0 4010 5.8 12.6 7.3 4b Rest 2887 544 8 1.5 2110 1.6 12.0 3.9 5 Sx Aosta – M. Rosa - V. Anzasca 3587 646 10 5 2135 1.3 4.1 3.3 6 V. Formazza - V. Grande 1339 107 3 1 11107 0.3 0.8 1.0 7 Alpi Lepontine 1292 88 3 0.5 147 0.6 1.5 1.7
8 Alpi Retiche - Bernina 1042 104 2 1 150 0.3 0.7 1.4
9 Alpi Orobie 3190 151 2 2 490 0.8 2.2 3.2
10 Adamello 2279 135 4 4 129 0.2 0.7 1.0
11 Brenta 2936 6 1 1 40 0.2 0.6 6.7
12 Alpi Retiche - Ortles -
Cevedale 3255 418 11 6 1344 0.6 3.2 3.2
14 V. Pusteria 1547 79 4 1 86 0.1 0.3 1.1
15 Dolomiti 6104 134 5 4 556 0.3 0.9 4.1
16 Alpi Carniche - Alpi Giulie 4552 113 3 3 450 0.4 1.4 4.0
17 Asiago - Grappa 2876 0 0 0 0 WESTERN ALPS (1-6) 13833 2416 31 13 934036 1.6 6.0 3.9 WA without GPNP 13126 1864 30 13 533026 1.0 4.3 2.9 CENTRAL ALPS (7-13) 16478 1075 26 15 2794 0.5 1.7 2.6 EASTERN ALPS (14-17) 15078 326 12 8 1092 0.3 0.8 3.3 TOTAL 45389 3817 69 36 132262 0.8 3.0 3.5 TOTAL without GPNP 44682 3265 68 36 92162 0.6 2.2 2.8
Figure 3.6 – Presence of Alpine ibex in management units in 2000. Dark green shows higher population size; shades of lighter green show the presence of small, fragmented populations and lower population size.
Table 3.5 presents information similar to that ofin Table 3.4 (distribution, size and density of ibex colonies in MUs), but it is relative referred to the 1984-85. period. In that period thereFifteen years ago there were 42 colonies with a total of 6,300 ibex, of which over 60% belonged to the GPNP population. There were about 5,500 ibex (87%) in the western Alps, 700 (11%) in the central Alps and 130 (2%) in the eastern Alps. Not counting the GPNP colony, whose size has remained virtually unchanged, no MU had a population size higher than 600 individuals. Summer density varied from 0.1 to 1 ibex/100 ha, winter density from 0.1 to 5.8.
The average annual population growth rate between 1984-85 and 2000 was almost 10% (excluding the GPNP colony, whose size has been oscillatinges around the carrying capacity, with net annual growth near 0). Average annual net growth increased from west to east due to the different population densities and was 9%, 10% and 15% for the
western, central and eastern Alps respectively. The annual net growth rate between 1984-85-85 and 2000 is significantly correlated to the population density calculated over the area actually occupied by each colony (Fig. 3.7). In all MUs growth rates range between 10% and 18%, except for MUs "Alpi Marittime" (2%) and "Alpi Retiche – Ortles -
Table 3.5 – Ibex distribution and population size in the management units of the Italian Alps (1984-85). Density was estimated according to summer and winter potential ranges (km2) (see text). for further
explanations). "Reintro" indicates the number of re-introduced colonies; "Den/distr" indicates the density calculated on omputed on the present distribution range. No. Management Unit Total
surface (km2)
Colony
surface coloniesNo. of Reintro Size density /100 Summer ha Winter density /100 ha Den/ distr /100 ha 1 Imperia 1218 0 0 0 0 2 Alpi Marittime 929 285 3 1 453 1.0 5.8 1.6 3 V. Maira – Orsiera 3166 282 4 2.5 54 0.0 0.2 0.2 4 V. Lanzo - G. Paradiso - M. Bianco 3594 1037 8 1.5 4422 2.2 8.9 4.3 4a GPNP 707 551 1 0 4010 5.8 12.6 7.3 4b Rest 2887 486 7 1.5 412 0.3 2.3 0.8 5 Sx Aosta – M. Rosa - V. Anzasca 3587 610 7 4 522 0.3 1.0 0.9 6 V. Formazza – V. Grande 1339 87 1 1 10 0.0 0.1 0.1 7 Alpi Lepontine 1292 42 1 0 40 0.2 0.4 1.0
8 Alpi Retiche – Bernina 1042 104 2 1 35 0.1 0.2 0.3
9 Alpi Orobie 3190 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
10 Adamello 2279 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
11 Brenta 2936 0 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
12 Alpi Retiche – Ortles -
Cevedale 3255 341 6 2 528 0.3 1.3 1.5
14 V. Pusteria 1547 58 2 0.5 8 0.0 0.0 0.1
15 Dolomiti 6104 111 3 3 84 0.0 0.1 0.8
16 Alpi Carniche - Alpi Giulie 4552 95 2 2 40 0.0 0.1 0.4
17 Asiago – Grappa 2876 0 0 0 0 WESTERN ALPS (1-6) 10745 2301 23 10 5461 0.9 3.5 2.4 WA without GPNP 10038 1749 22 10 1451 0.3 1.2 0.8 CENTRAL ALPS (7-13) 16478 660 12 4 713 0.1 0.4 1.1 EASTERN ALPS (14-17) 15078 264 7 6 132 0.0 0.1 0.5 TOTAL 42301 3225 42 19 6306 0.4 1.4 2.0 TOTAL without GPNP 41594 2674 41 19 2296 0.2 0.6 0.9
Table 3.6 – Ibex population size in the management units of the Italian Alps (1984-85 and 1998-2000). Mean annual growth rate was calculated as the ratio between 2000 colony size and 1984-85 colony size.
No. Management Unit Total
surface (km2) Colony Size 1984-85 Colony Size 1998-2000 Mean annual growth rate 1 Imperia 1218 0 0 --2 Alpi Marittime 929 453 606 0.02 3 V. Maira – Orsiera 3166 54 368 0.14
4 V. Lanzo - G. Paradiso – M. Bianco 3594 4422 6120 0.02
4a GPNP 707 4010 4010 0.00
4b Rest 2887 412 2110 0.12
5 Sx Aosta – M. Rosa - V. Anzasca 3587 522 2135 0.10
6 V. Formazza – V. Grande 1339 10 11107 0.17
7 Alpi Lepontine 1292 40 147 0.09
8 Alpi Retiche – Bernina 1042 35 150 0.10
9 Alpi Orobie 3190 0 490
--10 Adamello 2279 0 129
--11 Brenta 2936 0 40
--12 Alpi Retiche – Ortles – Cevedale 3255 528 1344 0.06
13 V. Venosta – Brennero 2484 110 494 0.11
14 V. Pusteria 1547 8 86 0.17
15 Dolomiti 6104 84 556 0.13
16 Alpi Carniche - Alpi Giulie 4552 40 450 0.18
17 Asiago – Grappa 2876 0 0 --WESTERN ALPS (1-6) 10745 5461 934036 0.04 WA without GPNP 10038 1451 533026 0.09 CENTRAL ALPS (7-13) 16478 713 2794 0.10 EASTERN ALPS (14-17) 15078 132 1092 0.15 TOTAL 42301 6306 132262 0.05 TOTAL without GPNP 41594 2296 92162 0.10
3.4 Status and evolution of population size
During historical times ibex populations ranged over the whole Alps up to the 13° east longitude (the line joining Carinthia and Salzburg).
Numerous sources confirm an the great historical iinterest in ibex throughout history. In the Middle Ages ibex were hunted as desirable game and their abundance waswere an important source of food for the people who inhabited the Alpine valleys. Therapeutic power was ascribed to various ibex body parts since the Roman Empire. This subsequently led to the establishment in 1654-1668, by Prince Bishop Guidobald von Thun, of an "Ibex Pharmacopoeia" in the episcopal royal pharmacy of Salzburg. Hunters were required to deliver all the parts of hunted ibex to the pharmacy. The rarer the ibex became, the more valuable the business, and the prospective good profit drove many to poaching. The great value of their attributed to hornsits trophy, the large amount of meat and the supposed thaumaturgic properties of different parts of their its body determined the overexploitation of ibex populations and drove them ibex almost to extinction.
In spite of various attempts at ibex protection, farming and translocation (first in Tyrol in 1538 and then near Salzburg at the end of the XVII century), ibex progressively
disappeared from the Alps during the XVI, XVII and XVIII centuries. In Grisons (CH) tThe last ibex in Grisons (CH) were seen in 1650; they disappeared from the Bernese Alps between 1750 and 1800, and from Valais between 1800 and 1850. After centuries of active extermination, in the second half of the XIX century only one ibex population of 50-100 individuals survived on the Gran Paradiso Massif, western Italian Alps, due to the protection granted by the Savoia Royal Family.House.
HThe main reasons that drove ibex to the verge of extinction are hunting and the poaching of highly priced gamedrove ibex to the verge of extinction. Hunters took advantage of the ibex’ typical flight behaviour: in case of danger, instead of running long distances, ibex reach the nearest steep cliff, from the top of which they survey the surroundings. While this escape behaviour proves effective with natural enemies, it is rather ineffective with armed hunters. Thus, w, and with the onset and improvement of firearms, hunting became a serious threat to ibex conservation.
Only the Gran Paradiso population was spared the fate of extermination thanks to strict conservation measures. In 1821, when the future "mother colony" of all Alpine ibexes countedhad less than 100 individuals, the first protective measures were implementedput into place, followed in 1836 by the "Regie Patenti" that declared the ibex area a royal hunting preserve for King Vitctorio Emanuele II. In 1922, the last ibex refuge finally became the Gran Paradiso National Park.
The protection granted to ibex was the first step in for the conservation and restoration of the Alpine ibex population. Even though protection was granted for royal hunting purposes, it contributed to an increase in the size of the ibex population: in 1878, about 2000 ibexes lived in the hunting preserve, and they were about 4000 at the beginning of the XX century their number was about 4000. During the last century, with the exception of the minimum values reached during the two war periods, the abundance of GGran Paradiso population ranged between 3500 and 5000 individuals (Peracino & Bassano 1990).
The hunting limitation or prohibition and the creation of protected areas for ibex protection (Switzerland, 1920; France, 1963) facilitated the colonization of new areas and the increase of ibex populations size. In Switzerland, ibex hunting was prohibited in 1875, year of the first re-introduction programmes; here ibex is are currently strictly protected by federal legislation, and annual hunting quotas have been set since 1977 (Giacometti, in Shackleton 1997). In Liechtenstein, ibex they haves been protected since 1972. In France, they ibex wereas hunted between 1959 and 1976, when the Law on Nature Protection (10.7.76) introduced legal protection for the species (Roucher, in Shackleton 1997). In Germany, ibex they haves been fully protected since 1936, year of the first re-introduction. In Austria, ibex they is are legally hunted in few a small number of populations in the federal provinces of SStyria and Tyrol (Gossow & Zeiler, in Shackleton 1997). In Slovenia, selective hunting of ibex has been permitted since 1953.
In Italy, until 1969 ibex werecould be legally hunted until 1969 only in the Gran Paradiso National Park and in the Alpi Marittime Natural Park (formerly the Hunting Preserve of Valdieri-Entracque). The past hunting law (Legge 27 December 1977, n. 968) listed the species as It used to be listed as "par"particularly protected" species" according to, while the present law on hunting and wildlife conservation (Legge 157/92) lists it as the past hunting law (Legge 27 December 1977, n. 968), and is now considered "protected" species" according to . the present law on hunting and wildlife conservation (Legge 157/92). Since the coming into force of the regional regulations on taxidermic preparation and keeping
