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A B S T R A C T . Ba s ed o n t he r e v

i

s e d de f

i

n

i

t

i

o n o

f

c h

i

l

d

h o od l e ad

po

i

s o n

i

n g b

y

t h e C DC

i

n 1 9 9 1 , t he p o pu l a t

i

o n c o n s

i

de r e d a t r i s k

has

i

n c r e a s ed at l e a s t t e n - f o l d . I t

i

s e s t

i

ma t ed t ha t m o r e t h a n

9 0 % o f a l l c as e s f a l l w

i

t h

i

n t h e n e w l y i n c l ud e d 1 0 t o 2 4 ug

/

d l

r a n ge . T h e Na t

i

o n a l I n st i t u t e o f E n v i r o n m e nt a l H e a l t h Sc i e nc e s ,

i

n c o n

j

u n c t

i

o n w

i

t h t he U N C S c h o o l o f Pu b l

i

c Hea l t h a nd t h e N . c .

Dep t . o

f

En v

i

r o n m e nt

, He a l t h , a nd Na t u r a l Re s o u r c e s ,

i

n v e s t

i

ga t e d

t he s o u r c e s o f l e a d

p

o

i

s o n

i

n

g

f r o m ch

i l d

r e n who w e r e r e

p

or t ed t o

be i n t he 1 5 - 2 4 u g

/

d l r a n ge . T we nt y - s e v e n ho u s e ho l ds f r o m t e n

N . C . c o u nt

i

e s c omp l e t e d qu e s t

i

o n n a

i

r e s a nd t he c o n c e n t r a t

i

o n of

l e ad

i

n pa

i

nt , dus t , s o

i

l , a nd w a t e r we r e m ea s u r ed . Su c h f a c t o r s

a s pr o x

i

m

i

t y t o ma

j

o r h

i

g hwa y s , a ge o f t h e ho u s e , e x po su r e t o

f a l l o u t f r o m l e a d f u m e s , c h

i

l d c a r e f r e

q

u e n c

y

of v

i

s

i

t s t o ot he r

s

i

t e s , a nd

i

m

p

r o pe r ho m e r e n o v a t

i

o n t e c hn

i

qu e s w e r e a l s o n o t e d .

G r e at e r t h a n 8 0 % o f t he h o me s t e s t e d ha d s o

i

l l e ad l e v e l s a b o v e

5 0 0 p pm a n d

/

o r e xt e r

i

o r p a

i

n t l e a d c o n c e nt r a t

i

o n s a t 1 . 6 m

g

/

cm^

o r h

i

g he r . T he l e as t c o m m o n f a c t o r s f o u nd w e r e h

i

g h l e a d c o n c e n ¬

t r a t

i

o ns

i

n t h e w at e r s up p l

y

(

8 . 3 % a bo ve 1 0

p p b , n on e a bo v e 2 0

p p b

)

a nd p o t e nt

i

a l v o l a t

i

z e d l e a d f u me e xp o s u r e

(

8 . 3 %

)

. I n m o s t

c as e s a m a

j

o r c o nt r

i

but o r t o t h e c h

i

l dr e n ' s l e a d

p

o

i

s o n

i

n

g

a

p

pe a r e d t o be ha nd -

i

n- m o u t h a c t

i

v

i

t

y c o mb i ne d w

i

t h f

i

n e pa r t i ¬

c l e s o f s o

i l

t r a c

k

ed

i

n t o t h e ho me , o r e xt er

i

o r

p

a

i

n t c h

i p

s f r om

p

o o r l

y

m a

i

nt a

i

n ed wa l

l

s o r

p

o r ch ce

i

l

i

n

g

s . T

h

e f

i

n d

i

n

g

s

b

a s e d o n

t h

i

s s ma l l s a mp l e s ug g e st t h at a s i g ni f i ca nt r edu c t

i

o n

i

n b l o od

l e ad l e v e l s mi g h t be a ch

i

e v ed t h r o u

g h p r o p er e x t e r

i

o r m a

i

nt e ¬

n a n c e ,

h

o u s e du st r e

d

u c

t i

o n t e c hn

i q

u e s a nd

f

r e

q

u e n

t

h

a n

d

c

l

e a n ¬

(2)

ACK N0 WL E 6 E ME 1I T S

I w o u l d l

i

k e t o t h a nk Mr . D a v

i

d B r own , Dr . Fr a n c

i

s L y n n

, a n d

Dr . J oh n Dem e nt f o r t he

i

r s u p p o r t

, gu

i

da n c e , a nd e x p e r t

i

s e

t h r o u g h o u t t h

i

s e nt

i

r e s t ud y . I a m a l s o

i

ndeb t ed t o Mr . J

i

m Hay e s

a n d Mr . E d No r ma n o f t he No r t h C a r o l

i

n a Depa r t me nt o f En v

i

r o n m e n ¬

t a

l

He a

l

t h a nd Nat u r a l Re s o u r c e s ; w

i

t h o ut t he

i

r c o o

p

e r e r at

i

o n

t h

i

s r e s e a r ch w o u l d n ot ha v e be e n po s s

i b l

e . I am a d d

i

t

i

o n a l l

y

gr a t e f u l t o Dr . Fr ed P f a e nd e r f o r h

i

s c o nt

i

n u a l c o u ns e l a nd h e l p

du r

i

n g m

y

gr a du a t e s t u d

i

e s , a s we l l a s h

i

s pr e s e n c e a nd

i

n t e r e s t

i

n t h

i

s p r o

j

e c t .

Dr . Fr a n c o

i

s N

i

e l s e n of t h e U N C So c

i

o l o

g y

Dep a r t me nt w a s a

l

s o

o f

i

n v a l u a b l e a s s

i

st a n c e

i

n he l p

i

ng d e s

i

gn a nd

i

nt e r p r et t he

st at

i

s t

i

c a l a n a l

y

s

i

s of t h

i

s s t u d

y

' s d at a . I am gr a t e f u l f o r s u c h

(3)

I N T R O O U CT ZOlf

T h e c a u s e s o

f

e

l

e v at ed b l o od l e ad l e v e l s

i

n c h

i

l dr e n c o m e f r o m

m a n

y

p

ot e nt

i

a

l

s o u r c e s ,

i

n c l u d

i

ng : dr

i

nk

i

n

g

w a t e r , c o n t a m

i

n a t e d

so

i

l , a t m os p h e r

i

c p o l l u t

i

o n f r om n ea r b y sm e l t e r s o r bu r n i n

g

pa

i

nt , p a r e nt s

' o c c u

pat

i

o n s o r ho b b

i

es ,

i

nt e r

i

o r a nd e x t er

i

o r

l e ad - bas ed

pa i nt , l e ad

- b as ed du s t

, a nd e v e n c e r t a i n h ome "

r e m e ¬

d

i

e s " . ' ■ *

T he s e so u r c e s m a y b e

i

n t e r r e l a t e d . So

i

l , f o r e x a m

p

l e ,

m a

y

h a v e be c o m e c o n t a m

i

n at ed t h r o ug h

d

ep o s

i

t

i

o n o

f

a ut o mob

i

l e

e x ha u s t w

h

e n l e a

d

e

d

g

a s o

l i

n e w a s

i

n u s e , f r om t he m e c

h

a n

i

c a

l

a br a s

i

o n a nd w ea t h e r

i

ng of l e ad - ba s e d

pa

i

nt ed e x t e r n a l s t r u c ¬

t u r e s , a nd f r om c o nd e n s at

i

o n f a l l o ut o f l ea d v a

p

o r f r om s me l t

i

n g

a ct

i

v

i

t

i

e s . E v e n w

i

t h t h e de c l

i

n e o f l ea d ed

g

a s o l

i

n e u s e du r

i

n

g

t he 1 970 '

s ^, a nd s t r

i

ct e r r e gu l a t

i

o n s r ega r d

i

n

g

s me l t e r em

i

s ¬

s

i

o n s a nd h a z a r do u s wa st e e l

i

m

i

na t

i

o n ' , t h e

p

o s s

i

b l e n um b e r o f

s o u r ce s t

h

a t c o u

l d

c a u s e

l

e ad p o

i

s o n

i

n g

i

n a p a r t

i

c u l a r ho u s e ho l d

i

s l eg

i

o n .

T he r e ha v e be e n m a n

y

s t ud

i

es a s t o t h e m o s t c o mmo n a n d r e l at

i

v e

i

m

p

o r t a n c e of e nv

i

r o nme nt a l l e ad s o u r c e s

i

n ch

i

l dr e n w

i

t h E B L L s

(

e l e v at e d b l o od -

l

e ad

l

e v e

l s

)

a b o v e 2 5u

g

/

d l »'" •»»•"

, but l

i

t t l e

p ub l

i

sh e

d

r e s e a r c

h

a s t o

t

h e f r equ e nc

y

a nd r e l e v a n c e o f t h e

s o u r c e s t

h

at c a u s e

l

owe r l e v e l s o f l e a d po

i

so n

i

ng . I n v e st

i

g a t

i

ng

t

h

e s e s o u r c e s

i

s o

f

p

a r a m o u nt

i

m

p

o r t a n c e , n ot o n

l y

be c a u s e o f t h e

l

a r g e p opu l a t

i

o n e s t

i

m at e d t o f a l l w

i

t h

i

n t he 1 0 - 2 4u

g

/

d l r a n

g

e

"

, b u t be c a u s e o

f

t h e f

i

n

d i

n

g

s o f d e v e l opm e nt a l de f

i

c

i

e n c

i

e s t ha t

c a n o c c u r at t h

i

s r a nge . * **"

(4)

e x p os u r e , r o ug h l

y

1 7

%

o f t h e c h

i

l d r e n

i

n t h e U. S. u n

d

e r t h e a ge

o f s

i

x m

i g

h t e x

p

e r

i

e n c e a f

i

ve po

i

n t I

Q

de f

i

c

i

t , a l o n g w

i

t h o t he r

l ea r n

i

ng ha n d

i

c ap s . "

T h

i

s r e pr e s e nt s a n e st

i

m at e d l o s s o f b

i

l ¬

l

i

o n s o f do

l

l a r s

i

n e v e nt u al l o st pr o

d

u c t

i

v

i

t

y

.

T he No r t h C a r o l i n a D E HNR

i

n c o l l a bo r at

i

o n w

i

t h N I EH S a n d t h e

U N C Sch o o

l

of Pub l

i

c He a l t h de s

i g

n ed a nd c o ndu c t ed a

p i

l o t s t u d

y

.

T h e pu r

p

os e o f t h

i

s s t u

d y

wa s t o : 1

)

a s c e r t a

i

n t h e

p

o s s

i

b

i

l

i

t

y

o f

f

i

n d

i

ng t he s o u r c e

(

s

)

o

f

l ea d

i

n ho u s eh o l d s w

i

t h c h

i

l dr e n e x h

i

i

t

i

ng E B L L '

s be t we e n 1 5 a nd 2 4ug

/

d l ; 2

)

ch a r a c t e r

i

z e t he s e

s o u r c e s , det e r m

i

n e t h e

i

r f r equ e n c

y

, a nd ,

i

f

p

o s s

i

b l e , c om

p

a r e t h e

cha r a ct e r

i

s t

i

c s a s s o c

i

a t e d w

i

t h t h e E B L L ' s of t h e s e h o u s eh o l d s

w

i

t h ho u s e h o l ds w he r e

t

he l e v e l s a r e h

i

g h e r

(

> 2 5u

g

/

d

l

)

; 3

)

r e c o mme nd t h e mo s t c o s t - e f f e c t

i

v e m et h ods t o r ed u c e t he r

i

s k o f

l e a d p o

i

s o n

i

n g

i

n s u ch ho u s e ho l d s ; a n

d

, 4

)

us e t he

i

n f o r ma t

i

o n

g a r n e r ed f r om t h e t h

i

s st ud

y

t o d e s

i

gn a l a r ge r , m o r e e n c o mpa s s ¬

i

n g

i

n v es t

i

g

a t

i

o n .

A s

i

m u l t a n e o u s s t u d

y

wa s u nde r t ak e n t o det e r m

i

n e w ha t s t r a t e ¬

g

i

e s a l r e ad

y

i

n u s e a r e t he m o s t ef f e c t

i

v e

i

n l owe r

i

n

g

t he b l o od

l e ad l e v el s o f c h

i

l dr e n f o u nd t o be > 2 5ug

/

d l a n d w h o s e ho u s e ho l d s

ha d a l r e a

d y

un de r

g

o n e e nv

i

r o nme nt al

i

n v es t

i

g at

i

o n a nd

i

nt e r v e n ¬

t

i

o n . T h e

p

u r

p

o s e of t h e s e c o nd s t ud

y

wa s t o a s c e r t a

i

n w hat

d

i

f f e r e n c e s e x

i

s t ed be t we e n h o u s eh o l

d

s w

i

t h ap

p

r e c

i

a b l e l owe r

i

ng

o f E B L L '

s a nd t h o s e w

i

t

h

o u t . So me o f t he s ame s u r v e

y

q

u es t

i

o n s

(5)

l e ad a nd ge n e r a

l

h e a l t h c a r e

)

we r e u se d

i

n bot h s t u d

i

e s . S

i

n c e

t he ho u s e

h

o

l d

s

i

n c

l

ud e d

i

n t he p r e s e nt s t u d

y

h a d n e v e r r e c e

i

v ed

a n

y

i

n t e r v e nt

i

o n , t h e

y

w e r e u se d f o r c o mp a r

i

s o n w

i

t h t h e s e c o n d

s t u d y p o

p

u l a t

i

o n .

MET HOD S

O v e r v

i

ew :

T h

i

s wa s a d e s c r

i

p t

i

v e s t ud

y

wh o s e po

p

u l at

i

o n w a s s e l e c t e d f r om

t he r e c o r d s o f t he N C D E H N R . T h e da t a c o l l e c t e d

f

r om t h e

p

a r t

i

c

i

¬

pa t

i

n g ho u s e ho l ds w e r e o b t a

i

n ed t hr o u g h a s u r v e y qu e s t

i

o n n a

i

r e

a n d t h e u s e o f v a r

i

o us f

i

e l d s a mp l

i

ng m e t hod s . T h e v a r

i

ab l e s

me a s u r e d we r e s e

l

e c t ed b a s e d o n t h e

p

e r t

i

n e n t f a c t o r s o

f

c

h i l

d ¬

h o od l e ad

p

o

i

s o n

i

ng f o u n d

i

n t h e l

i

t e r a t u r e . A t

y p i

c a l s

i

t e st u d

y

wo u

l

d pr o c e ed a s f o

l l

o ws : 1

)

A f t e r p r

i

o r c o m m u n

i

c a t

i

o n , a Co u n t

y

He a l t h Nu r s e a nd

/

o r Sa n

i

t a r

i

a n a nd t he au t ho r w o u l d v

i

s

i

t t h e

ho us eh o l d a nd

i

nt e r v

i

e w t he c h

i

l d ' s

pr

i

n c

i

pa l c a r et a ke r . 2

)

T he

a ut ho r w o u l d t h e n

i

n v e s t

i

ga t e t he ho me a nd

y

a r d , t ak

i

n

g

w at e r ,

s o

i

l , dus t , a n

d

p

a

i

n t s a m

p

l es a nd pe r f o r m

i

ng 2 0 - 40 XR F

(

X- r a

y

F l u o r es c e n c e

)

me as u r e m e n t s . 3

)

A l l s a mp l e s w o u l d be d e l

i

v e r ed t o

t

h

e a

p p

r o

p

r

i

at e

l

abo r at o r

i

e s f o r a n a l

y

s

i

s , t he X R F r e c o r d

i

n

g

s

p

l

a c ed

i

n

d

a t a

b

a n

k

a nd ev e nt u al l y do wn - l o a

d

e

d

t o h a r

d

c o

p y

. 4

)

Upo n r e c e

i p

t o f a l l r et u r n e d a n a l y s i s , a s

i

mp l e s

y

n o ps

i

s o f t he

f

i

nd

i

ngs a n

d

po s s

i

b

l

e r e c o mme nd a t i o n s we r e s e n t t o t h e h o u s eh o l d .

A c o

p y

o f t h

i

s l e t t e r a l o n

g

w

i

t h c o p

i

e s o f t he l a b r e

p

o r t s a nd

ot he r p e r t

i

n e nt d at a wa s s e n t t o t h e Co u nt

y

He a

l

t

h

De

p

a r t me nt a nd

(6)

D E H N R .

I

)

D af

i

n

i

t

i

o n of s t u d

y

Po

p

u l a t

i

o n :

T h e c a nd

i

da t es f o r t h e s t u d

y

w e r e dr a w n f r om t h e 1 9 9 2 N. c . D E H N R

da t a f

i

l e s . Fr om t h es e , a l l c a s es w e r e t a ke n f r om t he po pu l a t

i

o n

w

i

t h t he f o l l ow

i

n

g

c ha r a ct e r

i

s t

i

c s :

a

)

T he m o s t r e c e nt b l o od l e ad m e a s u r eme nt wa s be t we e n 1 5

-2 4u

g

/

d l , a nd

i

t ha d t o h a v e be e n t a k e n s

i

n c e 0 1

/

0 1

/

9 2 .

b

)

T h e c h

i

l d w a s l e ss t h an s

i

x

y

e a r s o f a

g

e a

t

t h e t

i

m e of

t he

i

r l a s t b l o od l e ad t e st ;

c

)

T h e ho u s eho l d h ad n e v e r r e c e

i

v e d a n

y

p

r

i

o r t

y p

e o f l e ad

p o

i

so n

i

n g

i

nt e r v e nt

i

o n ;

d

)

A t l e a s t o n e E B L L me a su r eme n t ha d t o be r e

g i

s t e r ed w

i

t h

t he ap

p

r op r

i

a t e Co u n t

y

Pu b l

i

c He a l t h Dep t . ;

e

)

T h e c h

i

l d mu s t ha v e l

i

v ed a t

p

r e s e nt h o m e s

i

n c e 1

/

1

/

9 2

a n

d

a t

l

e a st t hr e e m o nt h s pr

i

o r t o t he l a s t b l o o

d

l

e ad t e s t ;

f

)

Mo s

i b l i

n

g

s

/

l i

v e -

i

n r e l a t

i

v e s w

i

t h a n E B L L o f > 2 5ug

/

d l .

(7)

I I

)

Env

i

r o iui « n t «

l

I n v e s t

i g

at

i

o n :

T h e e n v

i

r o nme nt a l

i

n v e st

i

ga t

i

o ns w e r e d

i

v

i

ded

i

n t o t wo p a r t s ,

t he su r v e

y

q

u e s t

i

o n n a

i

r e , a nd t h e s a mp l

i

ng

/

t e st

i

ng p r ot o c o l s f o r

me a s u r

i

n g l e a d

i

n pa

i

nt , w at e r , s o

i

l , a nd d us t .

A : SUR V E Y

Q

U E S T I ON N A I R E

/

D A T A F O R M S

(

Se e A

p p

e nd

i

x I .

)

T h e Su r v e

y

Q

u e s t

i

o n n a

i

r e wa s de s

i g

n ed af t e r

t he t wo l e ad

p

o

i

s o n

i

n

g

i

n v es t

i

ga t

i

o n f o r ms c u r r e nt l

y

i

n u s e b

y

t he No r t h C a r o l

i

n a C h

i

l d h o od L e a d Po

i

s o n

i

n

g

Pr e v e nt

i

o n Pr ogr am

(

C L P P P

)

. T h e qu e s t

i

o n n a

i

r e

/

f o r m u s e d f o r t h

i

s s t u d y c o n t a

i

n ed

ad d

i

t

i

o n a l qu e s t

i

o n s

/

obs e r v a t

i

o n s a bo u t t h e pr e v a l e n c e o f du st

i

n

k ey a r e a s ar o u n d t he h o u s eh o l d , c o n d

i

t

i

o n o f t h e y a r d

/

v eg e t a t

i

o n

c o v e r ,

p

r o x

i

m

i

t

y

t o ma

j

o r r o ad s o r h

i

g hw a

y

s , et c . . I t

i

n c l uded 2 0

q

u e s t

i

o ns

p

e r t a

i

n

i

n

g

t o k n ow l e d

g

e a nd be l

i

e f s a b o ut l e ad

p

o

i

s o n ¬

i

ng t o be u s e d a s a c o mpa r

i

s o n gr o up f o r t h e r e l at ed N I E H S s t u d

y

.

I t wa s a l s o u s e d t o r e c o r d m ea s u r e m e n t s f o r w at e r , so

i

l , p a

i

nt ,

a nd t wo t

y p

es o f du s t s am

p

l e s . A

g

r

i

d f o r dr aw

i

n

g

a m a

p

o f t he

y a r d a n d h o u s e w a s

i

n c l u ded t o r e c o r d u p t o 3 0 X R F m ea su r e m e nt s

(

s e e X R F An a l

y

s

i

s

)

, w

h

e r e t h e

y

we r e t a k e n

i

n r e l a t

i

o n t o t h e m a

p

,

an d a br

i

e f d e s c r

i p

t

i

o n a nd c o nd

i

t

i

o n o f e a c h r e a d

i

n

g

s

i

t e . No t

i

n c l u d

i

n

g

t h e s am

p l i

ng

/

m e a s u r e m e nt pa ge s , t h e qu e st

i

o n n a

i

r e t o ok

ap p r o x

i

mat e

l y

2 0 m

i

n ut e s t o c o mp l e t e - b a r r

i

n

g

u n f o r s e e n

i

n t e r ¬

(8)

B : SA M P L I N G M E T HODS

1

)

X R F A N A L Y S I S

A l l o f t h e o n s

i

t e m e a s u r e m e nt s w e r e d o n e b y t ak

i

ng X- r a y

F l u o r e s c e n c e

(

X R F

)

r e a d

i

n g s . Ba s

i

c a l l y

, a n XR F de v

i

c e co n s

i

s t s o f

a r ad

i

o a ct

i

v e X- r a

y s o u r c e , a s h

i

e l d ed "

n os e " t o s c r e e n X- r a y s

f r om t h e u s e r a n d t o a l l o w t he c o nt r o l l e d e m

i

s s

i

o n o f a be am o ut

t he f r o nt o f t h e n o s e , a nd a n e l e c t r o n

i

c c o u nt e r f o r ga u g

i

ng t h e

r e t u r n

i

n g r ad

i

at

i

o n . An X R F e m

i

t s a t

i

med b e am of X

- r a

y s ; t h

i

s

i

nt e r a c t s w

i

t h t he p a

i

n t

(

o r s o

i

l

)

t o be t e st e d . An y l e ad

i

n t h e

s a mp l e w

i

l l a bs o r b s o me of t h e h

i

g

h

e n e r g

y

r ad

i

a t

i

o n a nd r e- e m

i

t

p h o t o n s at ch a r a ct e r

i

s t

i

c f r equ e n c

i

e s . T h es e c a n t he n be cou n t ed ,

a nd t h e l e a d c o n c e nt r at

i

o n o f t he s amp l e ca n t hu s be de r

i

v ed .

A

l

l X- r a

y

f l u o r e s c e nt me as u r e m e nt s w e r e

pe r f o r med o n a I D M A P- 3

Spe c t r u m a n a l y z e r u s

i

ng a 4 0 m c

i

Co" r ad

i

at

i

o n s o u r c e . T h e s

i

t e

t es t

i

n g r eg

i

me n d

i d

n ot st r

i

ct

l y

f o l

l

o w H U D gu

i

de l

i

n e s " a s t h es e

w e r e d e v e l o

p

e d f o r mu l t

i

- u n

i

t d we l l

i

n

gs a nd a l l o f t he h o u s eh o l d s

v

i

s

i

t ed , e x c e p t o n e , we r e s

i

n

g

l e f a m

i

l

y

dw e l l

i

n g s . T

h

e t e s t

i

n g

p r ot o c o l s w e r e t ak e n f r om t he r e c o mme nda t

i

o ns a n d d

i

r e c t

i

o n s

pr o du c e d b

y

t he I D Co r

p

o r at

i

o n^ , t he Ge o r g

i

a I n st

i

t u t e o f Te c h

¬

n o l o

g y

. Le ad - Ba s ed Pa

i

n t De t e c t

i

o n a n d A ba t e m e nt 1 9 9 2 Sem-

i

n a r ^ * ,

a nd t he Re s e a r c

h

Tr

i

a n

g l

e I n s t

i

t u t e

who de v e

l

o

p

e

d

t

h

e M A P- 3

s t a nda r d o

p

e r at

i

n

g

p

r o c edu r e s f o r t h e E P A . "

(9)

2

)

D UST SAM P L I N G

S

i

n c e t

h

e E P A

i

s c o n s

i

d e r

i

n

g

cha n

g i

n

g

du s t s a m

p l i

n

g

p

r o t o c o

l

s

t o

i

n c o r

p

o r at e v a c u u m f

i

l t e r c o l l e c t

i

o n r at he r t ha n du st w

i

p e

s a mp l i ng " ,

i

t wa s de c

i

d e d t o u s e bot h m et ho d

s c o n c u r r e nt l

y

.

T hu s , a c r u de co mp a r

i

s o n c o u l d be ma de o f t he e f f

i

c a c

y

o f e a c h

w he n c o n t r a st i ng l a bo r at o r y r e s u l t s . A l l s a m p l e s w e r e a n a l yz e d b y

t h e l a b o r at o r

i

es of t h e Re s e a r c h T r

i

a ng l e I n s t

i

t u t e

i

n N . C. A

c op

y

o f t h e

i

r

p

r ot o c o

l

i

s

p

r o v

i

de

d

i

n A

p p

e nd

i

x I I I .

Ma t e r

i

a l s :

1

)

"

Du s t Bu s t e r " v a c u um w

i

t h p r e f

i

l t e r

i

n

g

a d d

i

t

i

o n * *

2

)

Me as u r

i

n g T ape

3

)

5 0 m l s c r e w- t o

p

H D P E t e s t t u be s

4

)

a d he s

i

v e l a be l s

5

)

" L

i

t t l e On e s "

Ba b y W

i

p e s

6

)

n e e d l e n o s ed f o r c e

p

s

7

)

F

i

s

h

e r br a n

d

4 7mm, Su m

p

o r e c e

l l

u

l

o s e

f i l

t e r s

8

)

N C st a t e Fo r ms D E H N R

#

' s

2364 , 3 4 6 0 , 37 5 9

** T h« pr af i l t a r i ng u ni t wa* da a i gn ed and bu i l t u s i ng a m od i f i ed S i e r r a

-M i a c oModa l 3 0 0 0 A i r Sam p l a r i nt ake no z z l e and 4 7t nm Sum

-po r e c e l l u l o se a n a l y t i ¬

c al f i l t e r * f i t t ed t o t he n o se o f t he " Du st Bus t e r " . T he a i r v e l o c i t y 1 . 0 c m

fr om t he i nt ake c o n e m e a s u r ed at 6 5 - 8 0

f .p. s . a nd t he v o l ume r at e w a s 2 .4

-2 . 8 L .p .m. u s i n

g c l e a n f i l t e r s . Bot h v e l o c i t y a nd u

p t ake r at e d i m i n i s hed a s

(10)

MSt hOd t

A

)

T

h

e

f

o

l l

o w

i

n

g

i

nf o r m at

i

o n w a s r e c o r d e d f o r e a c h h o us eh o l d :

1

)

ma

i

n e nt r a n c e

/

e x

i

t pa s sa g e

i

n h o us eh o l d ; 2

)

a ny f r equ e n t ¬

l

y

u s ed p l a

y

a r e as ; 3

)

m o st u s ed s t a

i

r s

(

i

f a ny

)

; 4

)

c h

i

l d ' s

b edr o om ; 5

)

t h e m o s t a c c es s a b l e w

i

n do w s

i

l l

(

s

) /

w e l l

(

s

)

.

B

)

A o n e squ a r e f o o t a r e a n e ar t he mo s t t r a f f

i

c ke d e nt r a nc e w ay

wa s m a r k ed a nd t he n c a r e f u l l

y

v a c u umed u s

i

n g a s

i

d e - b

y

- s

i

de ,

a nd t h e n u p- a nd - do wn

pa t t e r n c o v e r a

g

e .

C

)

T h e

p

r ef

i

l t e r

i

n

g

u n

i

t w a s u n s c r e w ed , t h e f

i

l t e r

p

a

p

e r w a s

r emo v ed a l o ng w

i

t h al l t h e c a p t u r ed d u s t . T h

i

s w a s t

h

e n

p

l a c ed

i

n a l a be

l

ed t e st t ub e .

D

)

A n ad

j

a c e n t a r e a w a s de ma r c a t ed

(

i

n s ame t r a f f

i

c f l ow , s ame

d

i

s t a n c e f r o m e nt r a n c e

)

a n d w i pe d w

i

t h S- s h a pe d Ea s t t o W e s t

mot

i

o n . T

h

e

b

a

b y

w

i p

e wa s t h e n f o

l

d e d w

i

t

h

d

u s t s

i

d

e

f

a c

i

n

g

i

n w a r

d

a n

d

t

h

e m ot

i

o n w a s r e pe a t ed w

i

t h No r t h t o So u

t h

w

i

p

i

ng . T he w

i

p e w a s f o l de d a ga

i

n a n d t h e a r e a wa s w

i p

ed

Ea s t t o We s t a ga

i

n . T he f o l d e d w

i

p e w a s p l a c e d

i

n a l a be l e d

t e s t t \ibe .

E

)

A

l l

s t e

p

s we r e s

i

m

i

l

a r

f

o r w

i

n d o w s

i l l

s , e x c e

p t

t h

e a r e a o

f

t h e s

i

l l w a s m e a s u r ed a nd e x t r a po l a t e d t o amo u nt of du st

p

e r

squ a r e f o ot . O n l y do u b l e w i n d o ws we r e u s ed f o r c o m

p

a r

i

s o n

s t u d

i

e s , o n e f o r w

i

p e s , t h e o t h e r f o r v a c uxim s amp l

i

n

g

.

(11)

3

)

WA T E R S A M P L I N G

H U D gu

i

d el

i

n e s s ug ge s t t a k

i

n

g

b

o t

h

" st a n d

i

n

g

wat e r "

(

f r o m a t ap

t hat h a d n ot b e e n u s ed f o r a t l e a st 8 hr s .

)

a nd "

f l u s h e

d

"

(

a f t e r

t he t ap h a s b e e n r u n f o r t w o m

i

n ut e s

)

s a mp l e s f o r l e a d -

i

n - w a t e r

t es t

i

n g .

' *

B a s e d o n c o n v e r s at

i

o ns w

i

t h

i

n o r ga n

i

c a na l y s

i

s c he m¬

i

s t s at b o t h t he NC St a t e L ab o r a t o r

i

e s a nd t h e UNC S ch o o l o f

Pu b l

i

c He a

l

t h , Wa t e r Re s o u r c e En

g i

n e e r

i

n

g

De

p

t . ,

i

t b e c a m e

a p

p

a r e nt t ha t o n

l y

v e r

y

r a r e

l y

ha

d

a n

y

o n e e v e r de t e c t e d l e ad

(

d e t e c t

i

o n l e v e l s f o r AA S a r e l e s s t ha n 5 p pm

)

f r om a f l u s h ed

sa mp l e . T he r ef o r e , a l

l

wa t e r s amp l e s t a k e n f r om h o us eh o

l

ds we r e

s t a n d

i

n g wat e r s a mp l es . T h

i

s pr o v

i

d ed a w o r s e c a s e s c e n a r

i

o

i

n

t e r ms o f p os s

i

b

l

e h a z a r d s du e t o l e ad .

Ma t e r

i

a l s :

1

)

1 0 0 0 m l L D P E e n v

i

r o nme n t a l w a t e r c o nt a

i

n e r s w

i

t h l

i

d s

2

)

l a be l s , a nd N C D E H N R f o r ms

#

2 3 6 4 a nd

#

3 7 5 9

Me t

h

o

d

:

A

)

I t was c o n f

i

r m ed t

h

at t h e t a

p

ha d n o t be e n u s e

d

f o r a t l e a st 8

hr s .

p

r

i

o r t o s a mp l e c o l l e c t

i

o n .

B

)

T

h

e L D P E c o n t a

i

n e r s w e r e

i

n f l a t e d , p l a c ed u nd e r t he t ap , a nd

t h e s

p i g

o t wa s t u r n ed o n . A l l we r e f

i

l l e d t o a t l ea st 9 5

%

c a

p

a c

i

t

y

, t

h

e c o nt a

i

n e r s w e r e n ot r

i

n s ed n o r a

l l

owe d t o

o v e r f l ow .

C

)

T

h

e c ap s w e r e s c r e w ed o n a nd l a be l e d a p pr opr

i

at e

l y

.

(12)

4

)

SOI L S A M P L I N G

T he X R

F

S

p

e c t r um An a l

y

z e r

(

M A P- 3 An a l

y

ze r

)

c o n t a

i

n e d s of t w a r e

t h a t a l l owed s o

i

l l e ad l e v e l s t o be me a su r ed . B e c a u s e o f u n c e r ¬

t a

i

nt y a s t o t he a c c u r a c

y

o f t he s e r e ad

i

ngs , a s o

i

l s a mp l e wa s

t ak e n a

p p

r o x

i

m at el

y

e v e r

y

t h

i

r d s o

i

l r e a d

i

n

g

f o r l abo r at o r

y

t es t

i

ng . An

y

u n u s u a l l

y

h

i

g h

(

a bo v e 5 0 0 0

p p

m

)

o r

i

mp o r t a nt

(

s u ch

a s at a

p

l a

y

gr o u n d

)

s

i

t e r e ad

i

n g w a s al s o s a mp l ed f o r l a b o r at o r

y

c o nf

i

r i na t

i

o n .

M at e r

i

a l s :

1

)

l a b o r at o r y sp at u l a , 1 b y 3cm b l a de

2

)

5 0ml s c r ew- t o

p H O P E t e s t t u be s

3

)

l a be l s , S t at e

f

o r ms

4

)

I D M A P An a

l y

z e r

Met ho d :

A

)

A

l l

ba r e s

p

o t s of

y

a r d w e r e

i

d e n t

i f i

ed , a nd a t l e a st t wo we r e

ch o s e n : o n e a s c

l

o s e t o t he p o r c

h

o r f r o n t d o o r a s

p

o s s

i

b

l

e ,

t h e o t h e r c l o s e t o o r

i

n t he a r e a wh e r e t h e ch

i

l d p l a

y

e d

o u t s

i

d e . O t h e r a r e a s w e r e t e s t e d

i

f t he r e wa s e v

i

de n c e o f

a ut o me c ha n

i

c wo r

k

i

n t h e

y

a r d , w

i

d es

p

r e a d r e n o v a t

i

o n do n e

o n

t h

e

h

o u s e , o r a

g

r e at de a

l

of m

i

s c e l l a n e o u s d ebr

i

s d

i

s ¬

t r

i b

u t e

d

a r o u n

d

t

h

e

y

a r d .

B

)

A t a p

p

r o x

i

m at e l

y

e v e r y t h

i

r d X RF r ea d

i

ng , a l

i

n e w a s s c r at c he d

i

n t h e s o

i

l s u r r o u n d

i

n

g

t h e n os e o f t h e

i

r r ad

i

a t

i

n

g

u n

i

t .

(13)

Us

i

n

g

t

h

e s

p

a t u

l

a , t he u

p p

e r 0 . 5c m o f s o

i

l

i

ns

i

d e t h e

p

e r

i

m ¬

e t e r wa s r e m o v ed a nd

p

l a c e d

i

n a l a be l ed t e s t t u b e . A m

i

n

i

-m \im of 5 g wa s t ak e n

i

n o r de r t o

i

n su r e e n o ug h s a mp l e t o

a l l ow f o r r ep e at a n a l ys

i

s .

S I T E

/

S O U R C E V A R I A B L E S

T h e r e w e r e t h

i

r t e e n ch a r a c t e r

i

s t

i

c s t h a t we r e u s e d t o

i

d e nt

i

f

y

p o s s

i

b

l

e s o u r c e s o r "

d

a n

g

e r " s

i g

n s a t t h e s

i

t e s . T

h

e ch a r a c t e r ¬

i

st

i

c s w e r e ch o s e n f r o m t h e m o s t o f t e n c

i

t e d s o u r c e s

i

n t h e

l

i

t e r at u r e , a s we l l as a n

y

n ot

i

c ed f ac t o r s t h a t h a v e n ot be e n

pub l

i

sh ed bu t ap p e a r ed t o be s

i

gn

i

f

i

c a n t

i

n t he c o u r s e of t h

i

s

st u d

y

. T h e s e w e r e :

1

)

T h e a ge of t h e h o u s e

(

P R E 5 0

)

-pr

i

o r t o t

h

e 1 9 5 0 ' s t

h

e r e wa s

n ot a gr ea t de a l o f t r u e s e l f

-r egu l a t

i

o n a s t o t h e a m o u n t o f l e ad

i

n U . S. dome s t

i

c

i

n t e r

i

o r

p

a

i

nt

, a nd

p

r

i

o r t o t he e a r l

y

' T O ' s

t h e r e w a s n o ba n o n e x

t

e r n a

l

l

e a

d

- ba s e d

p

a

i

nt

(

t h

o u

g h

ma n

y

Eu r o ¬

p e a n c o u n t r

i

es h a

d

p

r oh

i

b

i

t ed t he m a n u f a c t u r e of

l

e a d- b a s e d

p

a

i

nt

f o r

i

n t e r

i

o r u s e b y t

h

e 1 9 3 0 ' s

)

.

^

2

)

T he s

i

t e b e

i

n

g

w

i

t h

i

n 5 0 m of a m a

j

o r h

i

g h wa

y

o r r o ad

(

H Y WY 5 0

)

- a l t h o u

g

h l e ad de

p

o s

i

t

i

o n f r o m h

i g h

wa

y

s o r ma

j

o r r o ads

ha v e be e n f o u nd u

p

t o 5 0 0 m e t e r s d

i

s t a nt f r o m t h e r o ad s " ,

Wh e e l e r a n d Ro l f

(

1 9 7 9

)

f o u n d l

i

t t l e o r n o s

i

gn

i

f

i

c a n t a m o u n t s of

f u e l - d

e r

i

v e d l ea d > 5 0 m f r o m h

i

g hw ay s o u r c e s . "

(14)

3

)

An

y

y

a r d s o

i

l me a su r

i

n

g

abo v e SOOp p m

(

S O I L

)

- H U D Gu

i

d e l

i

ne s

sp e c

i

f

i

e s 5 0 0

p p

m a s t h e l e

g

a l l

i

m

i

t a bo v e w h

i

ch s o

i l

a bat eme nt

p r o c edu r e s mu st be ef f e ct ed .

4

)

Ext e r

i

o r

p

a

i

nt > 1 . 6 mg

/

c m ^

(

E X P T l

)

- 1 . 6 be

i

n

g t he l o we s t

sp e c t r um "

s c r e e n " r ea d

i

ng t hat n e ed n ot n e c e s s

i

t at e f u r t h e r

c o n f

i

r ma t

i

o n a s t o be

i

n

g

a bo v e t he l ega l l

i

m

i

t

(

1 . 0 m

g

/

c m^

)

.

5

)

Ex t e r

i

o r p a

i

nt > 1 0 . 0 m g

/

cm ^

(

E X P T 2

)

- w h

i

ch

i

s a n a r b

i

t r a r

y

l

i

m

i

t s e t a t 1 0 t

i

me s t h e l e

g

a l l

i

m

i

t . A l

i

t t

l

e b e l ow t h

i

s l e v e l

t h e p h y s

i

c a l a

p

pea r a n c e of t h e pa

i

n t be c o m e s

d i

f f e r e n t

w

i

t h a

d

i

s t

i

n c t

i

v e c r ac k

i

n g a nd c r a z

i

n g p at t e r n

i

n d

i

c at

i

v e of l e ad- b a s e d

p a

i

nt .

6

)

I n t e r

i

o r

p

a

i

nt > 1 . 6 m

g

/

cm^

(

I N P T l

)

7

)

I n t e r

i

o r

p

a

i

nt > 1 0 . 0 mg

/

cm ^

(

I N P T 2

)

8

)

Ha v

i

ng a

p

o r ch c e

i

l

i

n

g

w

i

t h s

i g

n s o f l e a d b a s ed

p

a

i

n t d et e r

i

¬

o r a t

i

n

g

a nd f

l

eUc

i

n

g

o nt o t he d e c k be f o r e t he e nt r a n c ewa

y

o f t he

home

(

P R C H C

)

;

l

a r

g

e , a

i

r

y

p

o r ch e s

i

n t h e A me r

i

c a n So ut h e a s t a r e a

c o mmo n a r c

h i t

e c

t

u r a

l

t r ad

i

t

i

o n . A l t h o ug

h

I c ou

l d

f

i

nd n o men t

i

o n

o f t h e s e a s a t

y p i

c a

l

" d a nge r s

i g

n "

i

n a n

y

o f t h e

l i

t e r a t u r e ,

p o r c h c e

i

l

i

ng s o r r a

i

l s

i

n o l d e r N. C . ho m es o f t e n s e e med t h e

p r

i

me g e n e r at o r of m

i

n ut e p a

i

n t c h

i

p s at t h e

f

am

i l

y do o r st ep .

I nt e r es t

i

n

g

l

y

e n o u

g

h , n o n e o f t h e h o m e s h ad

p

o r c

h

de c k o r f l o o r

(15)

p

a

i

n t r eg

i

st e r

i

n

g

a bo v e l . e mg

/

c m ^

.

9

)

W

i

n do w s

i

l l d us t w

i

t h a > 5 00u g

/

f t ^ c o n c e n t r at

i

o n

(

WDU ST

)

-a t pr e s e nt , t h e r e a r e n o e n v

i

r o nme nt a l

i

n v e s t

i

g a t

i

o n gu i de l

i

n e s

c o n c e r n

i

n g t he amo u n t o f l e ad

i

n du st f o r N . C . T h

i

s

i

s o n e o f t h e

HUD c l e a r a n c e gu

i

de l

i

n e s f o r po s t - abat em e n t t e s t i ng . "

1 0

)

F l o o r o r s t a

i

r du st a t > 2 0 0u g

/

f t ^

(

F S D U S T

)

- s e e 9

)

.

1 1

)

A dr

i

nk

i

n g w at e r s o u r c e w

i

t h l e a d l e v e l s a bo v e l O

p p

b

(

H 2 0

)

-t he r e we r e o n l

y

t wo c as e s o f d et e c t ab l e l e v e l s

(

> 5 p p b

)

o f l e ad

i

n s

i

t e dr

i

n k

i

n g w a t e r s amp l e s . N e

i

t h e r o f t he s e w as a bo v e t h e

E P A se t M C L s t a nda r d o f 5 0 p

p

b , a nd o n l y o n e w a s ab o v e t h e Act

i

o n

Le v e

l

o f 1 5

p p

b

f

o r P OW T P ' s

. ^

1 2

)

Exp o su r e t o v o l a t

i

zed l e a d f u me s

/

r e c o n d e n s e d

p

a r t

i

c u l a t e s

-f ume s f r o m bu r n

i

n

g

l ea d

p

a

i

nt ed bo a r d s o r h

i g

h- t e m

p

h e at

g

u n

s t r

i

p p

i

n

g

(

F U M E S

)

.

1 3

)

Ho u s e r e n o v at

i

o n w o r k

i

n pr o gr e s s .

A d d

i

t

i

o n a

l

o bs e r v at

i

o n s we r e ma de f o r o t he r c o n s

i

de r at

i

o n s a n d

be

h

a v

i

o r a

l

f

a c t o r s . On e w a s wh e t h e r t he pr

i

m a r

y

s o u r c e w a s o n t he

s

i

t e o r

i

f

i

t w a s s o m e o t he r n o n - h o me

/

y a r d f a ct o r

(

e .

g

. a

g

r a nd ¬

pa r e nt ' s

h ome t hat t hey

f

r equ e nt l y v

i

s

i

t

)

f o r e

l

e v at e d b l o od l e a d

l ev e l s . An o t he r wa s w he t

h

e r t h e c h

i

l d e x h

i

b

i

t e

d

s u c

h

a c t

i

v

i

t

i

e s

(16)

a s p

i

c a o r gn aw

i

ng o n p a r t s o f t h e ho m e . A t h

i

r d w a s n ot

i

ng

i

f

a ny f a m

i

l

y

mem be r w o r k e d o r h ad h o b b

i

e s , l

i

k e a u t o bo d y wo r k ,

l

i

k e l y t o br

i

n g t h em

i

n t o c o n t a ct w

i

t h a ny f o r m o f l e a d .

A ch a r t de n ot

i

n g t h e v a r

i

o u s l e

g

a l l

i

m

i

t s f o r p o s s

i

b l e s o u r c e

me d

i

a

i

s

g i

v e n be l ow :

S O U R C E L I M I T

(

8

)

R EGU L A TO R Y B O DY

P a

i

nt 0 . 0 6 %

(

pr e s e nt

)

l . Om

g

/

cm

^

(

o n e x

i

st

i

n

g

s t r u c t u r e s

)

H U D

S o

i

l 5 0 0 p p m H U D , E P A

Du s t 8 0 0 u

g

/

f t ^

(

w

i

n do w w e l l

)

5 0 0 u

g

/

f t ^

(

w

i

n do w s

i l

l

)

2 0 0 u g

/

f t ^

(

f l o o r

/

s t a

i

r

)

H U D C l e a r a n c e l e v ¬

e l s f o r

p

o st a ba t e '

m e nt

p

r o c e s s

Wa t e r 5 0 p

p

b - M C L *

(

a t t a

p

)

1 5

p p

b - Ac t

i

o n Le v e l * *

E P A , f o r Pu b . O wn ed

Wat e r Tr e at me nt

P l a n t s , o nl y

* Ma x i mum Co nt am

i n at i o n L e v e l

* * T

h

« P O WT P ' s mu s t t

ak e ac t i o n

i

f m o r e t ha n 1 0

%

o f t e s t ed

t a

p

s f r om a s

i

n

g l

e d

i

st r

i

bu t

i

o n c e n t e r s ho w > 1 5 p

p

b .

R ES UL T S

Of t we n t

y

s e v e n c om p l et e d h o u s eh o l ds , t he s o u r c e of l e ad e x

p

o ¬

su r e

(

s

)

f o r t we nt

y

t wo we r e d e t e r m

i

ne d . Fo u r of t h e f

i

v e n o n

(17)

de t e r m

i

n ed s

i

t e s r e m a

i

n u ns o l v ed

(

t h e r e a r e n o s

i

g n

i

f

i

c a n t

s o u r c e s of

l

e ad

f

o u nd

i

n o r a r o u nd t he s e home s o r at p l a c e s t h e

ch

i

l dr e n v

i

s

i

t

)

, a nd o n e

i

s s t

i

l l p e nd

i

ng ad d

i

t

i

o n a l

i

n f o r ma t

i

o n .

P R E5 0

(

A ge o f H o u s e

)

T w e n t y o n e

(

7 8 %

)

of t h e t we nt y s e v e n ca s e s

c a m e f r o m ho u s e s t h a t w e r e bu

i l

t b e

f

o r e t he l at e s

i

x t

i

e s . F

i

f t e e n

o f t hes e l

i

v ed

i

n h o m e s bu

i

l t be

f

o r e t he 1 9 5 0 '

s

(

5 6

%

)

. O f t h e s

i

x

r em a

i

n

i

n g s

i

t es , f o u r w e r e c as e s wh e r e t h e e x p o s u r e d

i

d n ot c o m e

f r om t h e

i

mmed

i

a t e ho u s e a nd y a r d . An ot

h

e r c a m e f r om a h

i g h

- l e

a d

pa

i

nt i n t e r

i

o r sho w e r w

i

n do w s

i

l l t h a t w as r ep l a c ed f r om a m u c h

o l de r ho m e . T h e l a s t c a m e f r om l e ad c o n t am

i

n at ed s o

i

l t h a t wa s

t r a c k ed

i

n t o t h e ho m e .

H Y W Y SO

(

Nea r n e ss t o H

i g

h wa

y

)

E l e v e n

(

4 1

%

)

o f t h e home s

i

t e s

w er e w

i

t h

i

n 5 0 m o f a m a

j

o r h

i

g h way o r r o a d a nd t e n o f t he s e

po s s e s s ed at l e a st o n e s o

i

l a r e a t h a t m e a s u r ed ab o v e 5 0 0

p p

m .

T h

i

s ma

y

n ot be a s s

i g

n

i

f

i

c a n t a s

i

t f

i

r s t a p

p

e a r s ; f u l l

y

2 2

(

8 1 . 5

%

)

of t h e ho me s

i

t e s v

i

s

i

t e

d

h

a

d

a

t

l

e a st o n e c o n t a m

i

n a t e

d

s o

i l

a r e a a nd t he s e w e r e h

i

g h l

y

c o r r e l a t ed w

i

t h po s

i

t

i

v e r e ad

i

ng s

o f e x t e r n a

l

l e ad- b as ed

p a

i

n t .

(

Se e s t a t

i

s t

i

c a l a n a l y s

i

s be l ow .

)

S O I L

(

Ya r d Co n t a m

i

n a

t i

o n

)

Tw e n t

y

- t wo

(

8 1

%

)

o f t h e s

i

t e s t e s t ed

p

r o v e d ab o v e S O O

p p

m f o r a t

l

e a s t o n e a r e a o f b a r e s o

i l

a r o u nd t he

h

o u s e . Mo s

t

o

f

t h

e a r e a s

t

e s

t

e

d

w e r e

f

r om e

i t h

e r w

h

e r e

t h

e

pa r e nt s

i

n d

i

c at ed t h a

t

t h e ch

i l

d

(

r e n

)

p

l

ay ed , o r a s c l o s e t o t h e

ba c

k

a n d f r o nt do o r s a s p os s

i

b l e . Ar e a s wh e r e t h e r e wa s e v

i

d e n c e

(18)

o f a ut o mob i l e r e pa i r

/

bo d y- w o r k i n t he

y a r d w e r e a l so t e s t ed .

(

A t

o n e s

i

t e t h

i

s wa s t he s

i

ng l e c a u s e f o r c o nt am

i

n a t ed s o

i

l , a nd

t h e c h

i

l d ' s e l e v a t ed b l o od - l e a d l e v e l

.

)

A l l a r e a s w

i

t h c o nt

i

n o us

gr a s s c ov e r o r v eg e t at

i

o n w e r e n ot t e s t ed , but t h e r e w e r e n o

(

0 %

)

s

i

t es w

i

t ho ut a t l ea s t o n e b a r e a r e a

i

n t

h

e ya r d .

E X T E R N A L P A I N T

(

Ext e r

i

o r Pa

i

nt e d Su r f a c es

)

Tw e nt

y

o n e

(

7 8 %

)

o f t he c a s e s ' h o m e s

(

o r gr a nd

p

a r e nt s '

h o m e s ,

i

f t h ey st ay ed t h e r e o n

a r e gu l a r ba s

i

s

)

h ad po r t

i

o n s o f e x t e r n a l pa

i

n t > l . 6 m

g

/

cm ^

.

On l

y

e l e v e n h o u s e s

(

4 0 . 7 4

)

h ad e x t e r n a l

p

a

i

n t me a s u r

i

n

g

1 0 . 0 o r

a bo v e

(

a l t h o ug h o n e o r t wo ad d

i

t

i

o n a

l

ho m e s m

i g h

t

h

a v e a l s o

i f

i

t h a d b e e n

p

os s

i

b l e t o f

i

n d a su f f

i

c

i

e nt l

y

i

nt a c t a nd n o n - w e at h e r ed

su r f ac e t o a c c u r a t e l

y

m e a s u r e

)

.

I N T E R N A L P A I N T

(

I n t e r

i

o r Pa

i

nt e d Su r f a c e s

)

1 4 of 2 7

(

5 2

%

)

h ad

i

n t e r

i

o r

p

a

i

nt ed

p

a r t s m e a s u r

i

n

g

1 . 6m

g

/

cm

^

o r a bo v e a n d , o f

t

h

e s e , o n

l y

s e v e n

(

2 6

%

)

h

a

d

i

nt e r

i

o r

l

e v e l s abo v e l O. Om

g

/

cm ^

. T wo

o f t he s e s e v e n h a d

i

n t e r

i

o r pa r t s t ha t we r e f r om r e s t o r ed o l de r

h om e s ; t h e r e s t we r e h ome s t hat w e r e bu

i

l t b e f o r e t he 1 9 5 0 ' s .

P R C H C

(

A

g i

n

g

, L e a

d

- P

a

i

n t e d Po r ch e s

)

Tw e l v e

(

4 4 %

)

o f t h e 2 7 s

i

t e s

h a d e x t e r

i

o r

p

o r ch e s w

i

t

h

c e

i l i

n

g

s o r r a

i

l s t h at h a d l e ad -

b

a s ed

p

a

i

n t a

b

o v e 1 . 6m

g

/

c i i

^

w

h i

c

h

w a s

p

e e

l i

n

g

, c r a c

k

e

d

, o r o t

h

e r w

i

s e

pr o n e t o s pr e ad

i

ng pa

i

n t pa r t

i

c l e s t o t h e ho m e e nt r a n c e w ay .

D U S T

(

L e a

d

Co nt am

i

n at e

d

Du s t

)

No t a

l

l 2 7 s

i

t e s

h

a

d

d

u st s am

p l

e s

(19)

t a k e n f r om t hem

d

u e t o t h e ho m e s be

i

n

g

c l e a n ed

p

r

i

o r t o t h e

v i s

i

t , r e l u ct a n c e

/

em b a r r a s s

- m e nt t o l e t s t r a n

g e r s c o

l

l e c t " t h e

i

r

d

i

r t "

, a nd t h e

p

r e se n c e o f c a r p et wh e r e f l o o r o r s t a

i

r w

i

pes c o u l d n ot be t ak e n . 1 4 o f 2 4 s

i

t e s

(

5 8

%

)

h a d w

i

n do w s

i

l l l e a d

du s t l e v e l s e x ce ed

i

n g 5 0 0 u g

/

f t ^. 1 3 o f 1 9 s

i

t e s

(

6 8%

)

ha d f l o o r

o r st a

i

r l e ad du s t l e v e l s a bo v e 2 0 0u

g

/

f t ^.

H 2 0

(

L ea d

i

n Wa t e r

)

O n l y t wo

(

7%

)

o f t he t we nt y s e v e n s

i

t e w a t e r

s a mp l e s c o n t a

i

n ed de t ec t a b l e

(

> 5 p

p

b

)

a m o u nt s o f l e a d . On e s

i

t e

h ad a n e x t e r

i

o r w e l l l e s s t ha n 3 m

(

i l

l e ga l

)

f r om t h e ba c k do o r ;

a wat e r sa m

p

l e t ak e n f r om a u n u s e d f au c et o n t h e s

i

d e o f t he u n

i

t

c o n t a

i

n e d 2 0

p p

b , bu t a s a mp l e t a ke n

f

r om a n

i

n t e r

i

o r f a u c et wa s

b e l ow 5 p p b . T h e ot h e r s

i

t e

i

n c l uded a we 1 1

- r e n o v a t e d o l d h o u s e

wh o s e

p

l u mb

i

n g h ad b e e n r ep

l

ac ed

i

n t h e l a s t 4

y

e a r s . T h e st a nd ¬

i

n

g

s a m

p

l e f r o m t h

i

s s

i

t e r eg

i

st e r e d a t 1 4 p p b .

F U M E S

(

Vo l a t

i

z ed a nd

/

o r Pr e s

i p i

t a t e

d

Le ad

)

T

h

e r e w e r e o n

l y

t wo

c as e s

(

7

%

)

w he r e t

h

e r e a

p p

e a r e

d

t o

b

e t h e t h r e a t o

f

e x

p

o s u r e t o

l e ad v o

l

a t

i

z e d f u mes . On e c a s e c o n c e r n ed a mot h e r w ho w a s bu r n

i

n

g

o l d

p

a

i

n t e d bo a r d s

i

n a n

i

n d o o r c a s t

i

r o n st ov e f o r he a t du r

i

n

g

t h e w

i

n t e r . T h e o t h e r

i

ns t a n c e w a s du e t o a f a t h e r

p e r f o r m

i

ng

pa

i

nt s

t

r

i p p i

n

g

u s

i

n

g

a h

i g h

- t em

p

h e a t

g

u n o n t h e

i

n t e r

i

o r o f a

c

i

r c a 1 9 0 0 h ome .

H S R E N

(

Ho us e Re n o a t

i

o n

)

T he r e w e r e

f

o u r c a s e s

(

1 5

%

)

o

f

ho m e o r

a pa r t me nt r e n o v at

i

o n a ct

i

v

i

t

y

. T h r e e w e r e c a s e s w he r e t h e t e n a nt s

(20)

t he ms e

l

v e s we r e

p

e r

f

o r m

i

n

g

t h e w o r k . T h e

l

a s t c a s e w a s f r o m a n

a pa r t me nt c om p

l

e x w h e r e t he l a nd l o r d w a s s a n d- b l a s t

i

n

g a n d r e¬

p a

i

n t

i

n

g

t

h

e e x t e r

i

o r . T he o l d p a

i

nt w a s ba r e l

y

a bo v e l e ga l

l

i

mi t s

(

1 . 8 m g

/

cm ^

)

, bu t t h e s an d b l a s t

i

ng ha d s pr e a d f i n e d u s t

pa r t

i

c l e s t hr o ug ho u t t h e y a r d a nd

i

n t o t h e h o us e .

T

h

e ba r

g

r a

p

h e nt

i

t

l

e

d

" Pe r c e nt a

g

e o

f

Home s . . .

"

d e

p i

ct s

f

o u r ¬

t e e n o f t h e s

i

t e c h a r a ct e r

i

s t

i

c s

i

n o r d e r o f de c r e a s

i

n g f r e qu en ¬

c

y

. I t sh o u

l

d be n o t e d t ha t

i

n m a n

y

c a s e s t

h

e s

i

t e s e x h

i

b

i

t e

d

m u l t

i p

l e cha r a ct e r

i

s t

i

c s

(

e . g . o n e ho m e m ay t e st po s

i

t

i

v e f o r

s o

i

l / du s t , a g e , a n d r e n o v at

i

o n p r o c e edu r e s a l l a t t h e s ame

t

i

m e

)

.

Gr ap h 2 , t h e p

i

e c h a r t , p o r t r ay s o t h e r f a c t o r s n ot l

i

st ed

i

n

t he s

i

t e ch a r a ct e r

i

st

i

cs . T h e c a t e

go r y ' S OU R C E N O T I N HOUSE *

i

n c l u de s a l l s

i

t e s wh e r e t h e s o u r c e w a s n ot l o c a t ed a t o r a r o u nd

t he

p

r

i

ma r

y

r e s

i

d e n c e of t he c h

i

l d . A l mo s t h a l f

(

4 o f 9

)

o f t h es e

w e r e t

h

o s e c a s e s

i

n w h

i

c h t h e s o u r c e c o u l d n ot be

l

o c at e d o r

i

de n t

i

f

i

e d an y w he r e . A g a

i

n

, t he s e r e pr e s e nt a t

i

o n s m a

y

h a v e

c r o s s o v e r ; f o r

i

n s t a n c e , o n e of t he c a s e s wh e r e a p a r e n t p e r ¬

f o r med a u

t

o

b

od

y

wo r

k

i

n h

i

s s hop be h

i

nd h

i

s h o us e

i

s a l s o o n e

whe r e o n e o

f

h i

s c

h i

l dr e n e x h

i

b

i

t e d p

i

c a .

GR APH S & CH A R T S

(21)

P

E

R

C E N T A G E O F H O

M

E S E X H I B IT I N G

S

IT E C H A R A

C

T E R I S T I C S

G

R A P H

I

P E R C E N

T

P O

S

IT IV E

3

.

1

. .

7

R

7

8

n n

m

iii i i iU t

M

M

5 8

5

6

g 2

4 1

4 1

t«j»irf ^

^ t ^ ^

^

?

i

7

.

4 7

.

4

111—

-p (^ti tu M M Hrw I ri ^tMi i i imi i i i i

y tMi i i imiM M tuii 9 i kMiAH

(22)

O T H E R FA C T O R S F O U N D I N L E A D P O I S O N E D C H I L D R E N S

'

H O

M

E S

pe r c e nt ages of ho u s eho lds

w

it

h

e ach fa cto r

S O U

R

C E

N

O

T I N H O U S E

3

3

.

3 3

P I

C

A

4

0

.

7 4

U

R C

E

N

O T F

O U N

D

1 5

.

3

8

H O B B I

ES / J O

B

1 5

.

3 8

References

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