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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CASES ... XVII
Preface ... 1
Chapter One. Computer Ethics & the Law ... 19
§ 1.0: Why Study Computer Ethics? ... 19
[A] How Computers Impact Our Daily Lives ... 19
[B] Computer Ethics and the Law: Past, Present, Future ... 20
[C] Law Lags Behind Technological Advances ... 21
(1) What Is Legal Lag? ... 21
(2) Legal Lag in Response to Technological Changes ... 22
(a) Products Liability for the Age of the Internet ... 23
(b) Legal Lag & Information Technologies ... 25
§ 1.1: Ethical Roots of Computer Law ... 27
[A] Rapidly Evolving Technologies Raise Moral Issues ... 27
[B] Resolving Ethical Disputes Through Law ... 28
(1) The Ethics & Law of Ticket Bots ... 28
(2) Updating the Law for Price Bots ... 29
(3) Classifying Workers as Independent Contractors ... 30
(4) Algorithmic Bias ... 30
(5) Balancing Security Versus Privacy Concerns ... 31
§ 1.2: Technology, Ethics, and Law ... 32
[A] How New Technologies Disrupt the Law ... 32
[B] Unauthorized Copying in the Information Age... 33
[C] The Policy Debate over Unauthorized Copying ... 34
§ 1.3: Personal vs. Formal Ethics ... 36
[A] Personal and Informal Ethical Codes ... 36
[B] Formal Codes of Computer Ethics ... 37
(1) The ACM’s Code of Ethics ... 38
(2) Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility ... 40
§ 1.4: Ethics & the Internet of Things ... 43
§ 1.5: Globalized Law and Ethics ... 44
[A] The Internet as a Cross-Border Legal Environment ... 44
[B] Global Business Dilemmas ... 45
[C] Cross-Border Cultural Clashes ... 45
[D] Terrorism and Hate on the Internet ... 46
§ 1.6: Ethical Norms & Law ... 47
§ 1.7: Professional Ethics ... 48
[A] What Are Professional Ethics? ... 49
[B] Medicine as a Profession ... 51
[C] Law as a Profession ... 53
[D] Computer Science Is Not a Traditional Profession ... 54
Chapter Two. Ethical Theories & Computers ... 59
§ 2.0: Legal and Ethical Dilemmas ... 59
[A] How Computers Change Norms & the Law ... 59
[B] Computer Ethics as an Applied Discipline ... 60
(1) Multiple Views of Right and Wrong ... 60
(2) The Ethics and Law of Sexting ... 61
(3) The Morality of Winning at All Costs ... 62
§ 2.1: Five Leading Computer Ethics Theories ... 62
[A] Computer Ethics Theories as Ideal Types ... 62
(1) Deontological Ethics as an Ideal Type ... 63
(2) Teleological Ethics as an Ideal Type ... 63
[B] Consequentialist Ethical Theories ... 65
(1) The Canons of Consequentialism ... 65
(2) Applying Consequentialism to Drones ... 65
[C] Virtue and Duty Ethics ... 66
(1) Kant’s Duty Theory ... 66
(2) Applying Virtue Theory to the Ashley Madison Breach ... 68
[D] Conflict Theory Ethical Perspectives ... 68
(1) Applying Conflict Theory to New Technologies ... 68
(2) The Computer Industry & Social Inequalities ... 69
(3) Updating Marxism for the Information Age ... 70
(a) Karl Marx’s Theory of Class Conflict ... 70
(b) Updating Marx for the Information-Based Economy ... 71
(4) An IT Labor Aristocracy? ... 71
(5) Profit-Sharing as a Refutation of Marxist Theory? ... 72
(6) How Open Source Blurs the Worker/Owner Divide ... 73
[E] Social Contract Ethical Perspectives ... 75
(1) History of Social Contract Theory ... 75
(2) Thomas Hobbes’ Leviathan ... 76
(3) John Locke’s State of Nature ... 77
(4) Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Social Contract ... 77
(5) John Rawls’ Veil of Ignorance ... 78
[F] Libertarianism and Cyberlibertarian Ethics... 79
(1) The Traditional Libertarian Approach ... 79
(2) Cyberlibertarians... 80
(a) Protecting the Free Flow of Information ... 80
(b) Cyberlibertarian Utopianism ... 82
(c) Cyberlibertarian Ethics ... 83
[G] Learning from Multiple Perspectives ... 84
§ 2.2: The Future of Computer Ethics ... 86
Conclusion ... 90
Chapter Two: Review Exercises... 91
Chapter Three. Cybertorts for the Information Age ... 99
§ 3.0: Updating Torts for Cyberspace ... 99
[A] Torts as Civil Wrongs ... 99
[B] Legal Definition of Cybertorts ... 99
[C] The Three Branches of Tort Law ... 100
(1) Intentional Torts ... 100
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(3) Strict Liability ... 101
§ 3.1: The Emergence of Cybertorts ... 101
§ 3.2: Supplementing Criminal Law ... 102
[A] How Torts and Crimes Differ ... 102
[B] Cybertorts Supplement Cybercrime Enforcement ... 104
[C] Prosecutors’ Lack of Investigatory Resources ... 105
[D] Constitutional Protections for Criminal Defendants ... 106
[E] Criminal Law Requires Clearly Defined Statutes ... 107
§ 3.3: Intentional Cybertorts ... 108
[A] Online Torts Are Frequently Gendered ... 109
[B] Intentional Bodily Harm Cybertorts ... 109
(1) Cyber-Assault ... 109
(2) Internet-Related Battery ... 110
[C] Intentional Infliction of Emotional Distress ... 111
§ 3.4: Personal Property Torts in Cyberspace ... 112
[A] Virtual Trespasses to Chattels in Cyberspace ... 112
(1) Calculating Damages for Cybertrespass ... 113
(2) Web Robots as Trespassers ... 113
[B] Conversion in Cyberspace ... 114
§ 3.5: Intentional Information-Based & Cyber-Business Torts ... 116
[A] Cyber-Business Torts ... 116
[B] Cyberfraud or Intentional Misrepresentations on the Internet ... 116
[C] Online Defamation ... 117
(1) The Historical Roots of Defamation... 117
(2) Defamation for Individuals ... 119
(3) Trade Libel for Businesses ... 119
(4) Libelous Internet Postings ... 120
(5) Defamation Per Se ... 121
(6) Balancing Libel vs. Anonymous Speech ... 122
(7) First Amendment Defenses to Defamation Cases ... 122
(a) How the U.S. Supreme Court Constitutionalized Libel Law ... 122
(b) Public Officials in Cyberlibel Litigation ... 123
(c) Public Figures ... 125
(d) Limited Public Figures ... 125
(e) Private Person ... 127
(8) SLAPP Motions ... 127
§ 3.6: Negligence-Based Cybertorts ... 128
[A] Negligent Security ... 128
[B] Negligence Per Se & HIPAA’s Privacy & Security Rules ... 129
[C] Computer Security & Negligence Per Se ... 130
[D] Negligent Enablement of Cybercrime ... 131
§ 3.7: Online Strict Liability ... 133
[A] Defective 3D Products ... 133
[B] Information-Based Products ... 134
[C] Software Products Liability ... 134
§ 3.8: Cybertorts of the Future: The Internet of Things ... 136
[A] Internet of Things ... 136
[B] Self-Driving Cars ... 139
§ 3.9: Barriers to Cybertort Claims ... 141
[B] Section 230 Blocks the Evolution of Tort Remedies ... 142
[C] Cracks in the Section 230 Shield ... 144
§ 3.10:Global Cybertorts ... 145
[A] EU Products Liability ... 146
[B] Defamation Outside the U.S. ... 146
§ 3.11:Five Ethical Perspectives Applied to Section 230 of the CDA ... 148
[A] Consequentialism ... 148
[B] Virtue & Duty Theory ... 149
[C] Conflict Theory ... 149
(1) CDA Section Shields Online Bullies ... 149
(2) Marxist Class Conflict ... 150
[D] Social Contractualists ... 150
[E] Libertarianism ... 151
Conclusion ... 152
Chapter Three: Review Exercises ... 152
Chapter Four. Cybercrimes: Law & Ethics ... 159
§ 4.0: Crime on the Internet ... 159
§ 4.1: Federal Computer Crime Agencies ... 160
[A] Federal Bureau of Investigation ... 161
[B] United States Department of Justice (DOJ) ... 162
§ 4.2: Computer Fraud and Abuse Act ... 162
[A] The Provisions of the Computer Fraud & Abuse Act ... 162
[B] Stretching the CFAA to the Internet ... 165
(1) Amendments to the CFAA ... 165
(2) The CFAA & Social Media Contracts ... 166
§ 4.3: The Federal Wiretap Act ... 167
[A] The Elements of an ECPA Criminal Offense ... 168
[B] ECPA & SCA Defenses ... 169
(1) The Ordinary Course Exception ... 169
(2) The Rendition of Service Exception... 169
(3) Consent of Users ... 170
§ 4.4: The Economic Espionage Act ... 170
§ 4.5: Private Enforcement of Federal Computer Crime Statutes ... 171
[A] Crimtort Civil Actions to Combat Cybercrimes ... 171
[B] CFAA Private Enforcement ... 172
[C] CFAA Civil Lawsuits ... 173
(1) International Airport Centers v. Citrin ... 173
(2) LVRC Holdings Inc. v. Brekka ... 173
[D] ECPA Private Enforcement ... 174
[E] ECPA Civil Lawsuits ... 175
[F] EEA Private Enforcement ... 175
[G] EEA Civil Lawsuits ... 176
[H] Other Civil Enforcement ... 176
§ 4.6: Updating Cybercrime Law ... 177
[A] Crime & Technological Change ... 177
[B] Old Crimes Take on New Forms ... 177
[C] Updating Criminal Procedure ... 178
[D] Updating Criminal Law Jurisdiction ... 179
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[F] Fourth Amendment & Cell Phones ... 180
(1) Global Positioning System (GPS) ... 181
(2) Stingray Searches ... 182
§ 4.7: Cyberlaw Enforcement ... 183
[A] Child Pornography ... 183
[B] Criminalizing Sexual Advertisements ... 184
[C] Ransomware ... 185
[D] Illegal Markets on the DarkNet ... 187
§ 4.8: Globalized Cybercrime ... 189
[A] New Forms of Old Crimes... 189
[B] Cyberterrorists in Remote Locations ... 189
[C] State-Sponsored Cybercrime ... 190
[D] The Cybercrime Convention ... 191
§ 4.9: Using Cybercrime Ethics ... 192
[A] Consequentialism ... 192
[B] Virtue & Duty Theory ... 193
[C] Conflict Theory ... 193
(1) Gendered Cybercrime ... 193
(2) Sexual Orientation ... 195
[D] Social Contract Theory ... 195
[E] Cyberlibertarianism ... 196
Conclusion ... 197
Chapter Four: Review Questions ... 198
Chapter Five. Information Privacy ... 203
§ 5.0: The New Era of Global Privacy ... 203
§ 5.1: The Four Privacy-Based Torts ... 204
[A] Intrusion upon Seclusion ... 204
[B] Public Disclosure of Private Fact ... 205
[C] False Light ... 206
[D] The Right of Publicity ... 207
§ 5.2: Federal Enforcement of Privacy ... 208
[A] Federal Trade Commission’s Privacy Mission ... 208
[B] FTC Software Application Designer Privacy Rules ... 209
[C] Children’s Online Privacy Act (COPPA) ... 211
(1) COPPA Rule ... 211
(2) COPPA Enforcement Actions ... 212
[D] Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act ... 213
§ 5.3: E-Monitoring of Employees ... 215
[A] Why Companies Monitor Internet Communications ... 216
(1) Why Employers Monitor... 216
(2) Case Law on the Internet Monitoring of Workers ... 217
(3) The European Perspective on Workplace Monitoring ... 218
[B] Applying the Five Ethical Perspectives to Workplace Surveillance ... 218
(1) Consequentialism ... 219
(2) Virtue and Duty ... 219
(3) Conflict Theory ... 220
(4) Social Contractualist Approaches ... 221
§ 5.4: Global Privacy Law & Ethics ... 223
[A] EU/US Data Privacy Safe Harbor 1.0 ... 223
[B] The Google Spain Case ... 223
[C] CJEU’s Striking Down of the Safe Harbor ... 224
[D] Safe Harbor 2.0 ... 224
[E] General Data Protection Regulation ... 226
[F] National Privacy Enforcement Against U.S. Companies ... 227
§ 5.5: The Right to Be Forgotten ... 228
[A] Google as a Privacy Gatekeeper ... 228
[B] Five Perspectives Applied to the Right to Be Forgotten ... 229
(1) Consequentialism ... 229
(2) Virtue and Duty ... 230
(3) Conflict Theory ... 230
(4) Social Contractualism ... 232
(5) Libertarianism ... 232
§ 5.6: Ethical Issues with the “Girls Around Me” Application ... 233
[A] Geolocation Technology & Privacy ... 233
[B] Applying Ethics to Geolocation Technologies ... 235
(1) Consequentialism ... 235
(2) Virtue and Duty ... 236
(3) Conflict Perspective ... 237
(4) Social Contractualism ... 237
(5) Libertarianism ... 238
Conclusion ... 238
Chapter Five: Review Questions ... 239
Chapter Six. Computer Contracts ... 245
§ 6.0: Introduction to Computer Contract Law ... 245
§ 6.1: The Principal Computer Contracts ... 246
[A] UCC Article 2 Sales of Goods & Computer Systems ... 247
[B] Leases of Computer Systems ... 249
[C] Software License Agreements ... 249
(1) The Evolution of Contract Law for the Information Age ... 249
(2) Proprietary Software Agreements ... 250
(3) Open Source Software Agreements ... 250
(4) Open Source/Closed Source Hybrids ... 251
[D] Cloud Computing Contracts... 251
§ 6.2: Consumer Contracts in Cyberspace ... 254
[A] Airbnb’s Contracting Practices & Social Justice ... 255
[B] The Legal Reception of Wrap Contracts ... 258
(1) Shrinkwrap Licenses ... 259
(a) ProCD as a Game-Changer ... 261
(b) Hill v. Gateway ... 261
(c) Klocek v. Gateway... 262
(2) Clickwrap Licensing ... 263
(3) Browsewrap ... 263
§ 6.3: FTC’s Policing of Wrap Contracts ... 265
[A] What Defines a Consumer and What Does the FTC Protect? ... 265
[B] FTC & U.S. Consumer Law ... 265
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[C] The FTC’s Enforcement Action Against Snapchat ... 266
[D] The FTC’s Settlement with Jerk.com ... 268
§ 6.4: Software Development Contracts ... 270
[A] What Computer Professionals Need to Know About SDAs ... 270
[B] Lessons from Failed SDAs ... 271
(1) Obama Care’s Healthcare.gov Failed Website ... 271
(2) State of Indiana’s Failed Software Project ... 272
§ 6.5: Global Consumer Rights ... 274
[A] European Rejection of Unfair Wrap Contracts ... 274
(1) The Unfair Contract Terms Directive ... 274
(2) Test for Unfair Contract Terms ... 275
[B] Rewriting U.S. ToS for Europe ... 275
(1) AOL France and The Union Federale des Consommateurs ... 277
(2) Dell & the British Office of Fair Trading ... 278
[C] China’s Consumer Protection in Computer Contracts ... 278
§ 6.6: Five Ethical Perspectives Applied to Computer Contracts ... 280
[A] Consequentialism ... 281
[B] Virtue & Duty ... 281
[C] Conflict Theory: Contracts to Limit Consumer Rights ... 282
[D] Social Contractualism ... 283
(1) More Balanced Terms of Use ... 283
(2) Net Neutrality & Social Contract Theory ... 284
[E] Libertarian Perspective ... 285
(1) Traditional Libertarian View ... 285
(2) Cyberlibertarian View ... 286
§ 6.7: Electronic Repossession & Undisclosed Disabling Code ... 287
[A] Deactivating Software ... 287
[B] The ALI’s Limitations on Electronic Repossession ... 288
[C] Model Contractual Language About Disabling Devices ... 289
§ 6.8: Electronic Repossession & Leases of Goods ... 289
[A] Electronic Repossession of Automobiles ... 289
[B] Legal Cases on Failure to Disclose Disabling Software ... 290
§ 6.9: Five Ethical Perspectives on Electronic Repossession ... 291
[A] Consequentialism ... 291
[B] Virtue or Moral Duty ... 291
[C] Conflict Theory ... 292
[D] Social Contractualism ... 292
[E] Libertarianism ... 292
Conclusion ... 293
Chapter Six: Review Exercises ... 293
Chapter Seven. Patents, Copyrights & Computers ... 303
§ 7.0: Overview of Intellectual Property: The Powers of Imagination ... 303
[A] A Hidden Figure in Patent Law: Fred Jones ... 304
[B] Jones’ Assignment of His Patents ... 307
(1) Patent Law & Modern Information Technologies ... 309
(2) Business Method Patents ... 311
(3) How Copyright Law Protects Software ... 312
[C] Trademarks and Trade Secrets ... 313
(2) Trade Secrets of Computer Companies ... 314
§ 7.1: Philosophical Roots of IP Protection ... 314
[A] Social Contract Theory ... 314
(1) The Lockean Social Contract ... 315
(2) The Rawlsian Version of Social Contract Theory ... 316
[B] Consequentialism: Today’s Dominant IP Justification ... 317
[C] The Libertarian Perspective of Intellectual Property ... 319
[D] The Virtue and Duty Approach ... 320
[E] The Conflict Perspective Approach ... 320
§ 7.2: Computer-Related Patents... 322
[A] Patents in Early America ... 322
[B] What Is Protectable by Patent Law? ... 322
[C] The Patent Examination Process ... 323
(1) The Elements of a Patent ... 323
(a) Novelty ... 323
(b) Non-Obviousness ... 324
(c) Utility ... 324
(2) The Two Types of Computer-Related Patents ... 325
(a) Utility Patents ... 326
(b)Design Patents ... 327
[D] Computer Industry Patent Issues ... 327
(1) Software Patents ... 327
(2) Software Patent Litigation ... 328
(3) Combating Patent Trolls ... 328
(4) Patents & the Internet of Things ... 329
(5) The Uncertain Borderline Between Patent and Copyright Law ... 330
§ 7.3: Copyright Law for the Internet ... 331
[A] Overview of Copyright Law ... 331
[B] Software Copyright’s Sphere of Application ... 332
(1) Originality ... 332
(2) Fixation ... 332
(3) Derivative Works ... 333
[C] The Rights of Copyright Owners ... 334
[D] The Advantages of Copyright Registration ... 335
[E] Works Made for Hire ... 338
§ 7.4: Internet-Related Copyright Law ... 339
[A] Types of Copyright Infringement ... 339
[B] The Digital Millennium Copyright Act ... 340
[C] Anti-Circumvention Provisions ... 341
[D] Direct Copyright Infringement ... 341
[E] Secondary Infringement ... 342
[F] Fair Use in Cyberspace ... 343
§ 7.5: Is “Look and Feel” Protectable ... 344
§ 7.6: Ethical Debates over Peer-to-Peer Copying ... 346
[A] Peer-to-Peer Copyright Infringement ... 346
[B] P2P Infringement: The Grokster Case ... 346
§ 7.7: International IP Legal & Ethical Issues ... 347
[A] Global Patent Law Developments ... 347
[B] Global Issues in Copyright Law ... 347
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(2) Database Protection: Europe vs. U.S. ... 348
(3) Cross-Border Copyright Litigation ... 349
§ 7.8: The Ethics of IP Protection ... 350
[A] Consequentialism’s Incentive Theory of Patents ... 350
[B] Virtue and Duty Theory ... 351
[C] Conflict Theory & Copyright Law ... 351
[D] Social Contractualism ... 352
[E] Libertarian Views of Copyright Law & Patents ... 352
Conclusion ... 353
Chapter Seven: Review Questions ... 353
Chapter Eight. Trademarks & Trade Secrets ... 363
§ 8.0: Overview of the Law ... 363
[A] Introduction to Digital Trademarks ... 363
[B] Trade Secrets in the Digital Age ... 365
[C] Overlapping IP Protection ... 366
[D] Overlapping IP Protection ... 367
§ 8.1: Trademarks as Source Identifiers ... 367
[A] Defining Trademarks ... 367
[B] The Strength of a Trademark ... 368
[C] What Cannot Be Registered as a Trademark? ... 369
(1) “THE SLANTS” Trademark Application ... 370
(2) The Federal Circuit Court’s Initial Decision ... 371
(3) The Federal Circuit’s En Banc Reversal of the TTAB ... 371
(4) The Court’s Invalidation of the Disparagement Clause ... 372
[D] The Genericide of Trademarks ... 373
§ 8.2: Federal Trademark Registration ... 374
[A] The Mechanics of Registering Trademarks ... 374
[B] Trademark Causes of Action in Computer Cases ... 378
(1) Trademark Infringement ... 378
(2) Federal Dilution ... 379
(3) False Designation of Origin ... 381
(4) False Advertising or Misrepresentation ... 382
[C] Defenses in Federal Trademark Cases ... 383
(1) Parody ... 383
(2) Descriptive & Nominative Fair Use ... 385
[D] First Amendment & Gripe Sites ... 386
[E] The Uses & Abuses of Domain Names ... 387
[F] Remedies Against Cybersquatters ... 387
(1) Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act (ACPA) ... 387
(2) Uniform Domain Name Resolution Policy ... 389
[G] Anti-Corporate Sites and the UDRP ... 393
§ 8.3: Overview of Trade Secret Law ... 393
[A] Trade Secrets as Economic Assets ... 394
[B] Requirements of Trade Secret Protection ... 394
[C] Trade Secret Misappropriation ... 395
[D] The Law Governing Trade Secrets ... 396
[E] Nondisclosure Agreements to Protect Trade Secrets ... 398
§ 8.4: Global Trademark Law ... 400
[A] Non-Traditional Trademarks ... 401
[B] Immoral or Scandalous Marks & Policy Prohibitions ... 401
§ 8.5: Global Trade Secret Issues ... 402
§ 8.6: Ethical Perspectives: Trademarks & Trade Secrets ... 403
[A] A Consequentialist View of Trade Secrets ... 403
[B] Virtue & Duty Theory ... 404
(1) Trademark Law and the Problem of Counterfeits ... 404
(2) Trade Secrets & Virtue Theory ... 404
[C] Trademark Bullying & Conflict Theory ... 405
[D] Updating the IP Social Contract ... 406
[E] Preventing Government Oppression in Cyberspace ... 407
Conclusion ... 408
Chapter Eight: Review Exercises ... 408
Conclusion: The Future of Global Computing ... 417
