283
http://www.ijichthyol.org
Research Article
Evaluation of different water exchange regimes for optimizing growth and production of koi carp, Cyprinus carpio in tanks
Prithwiraj JHA*
Department of Zoology, Raiganj Surendranath Mahavidyalaya, Raiganj 733 134, West Bengal, India.
*Email: [email protected]
•
Abstract: The effect of different water exchange regimes on the growth and survival of koi carp, Cyprinus carpio in tanks provided with the supply of exogenous zooplankton as the food was investigated. Fish larvae (0.15±0.012g) were stocked in outdoor concrete tanks at 0.5 fish/l (T1 and T2); 1.0 fish/l (T3 and T4); and 1.5 fish/l (T5 and T6) and cultured for three months. The water exchange rate was 10% once daily in T1, T3 and T5 and twice daily in T2, T4 and T6. Values of dissolved oxygen were highest in T2, followed by T4, T1, T6, T3 and T5. The T5 treatment showed the highest concentrations of conductivity, NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, PO4-P, and bicarbonate alkalinity, which were significantly higher than the other treatments. The final body weight of C. carpio ranged from 4.01 to 8.22g in the different treatments. At harvest, maximum weight gain was achieved in the T2, followed by T4, T1, T6, T3 and T5 in descending order. There was a significant difference in the survival of koi carp among the treatments, ranging from 56.43% (T5) to 96.32% (T2). The percentage and number of fish exceeding a total weight of 5g were estimated from the size-frequency distribution at the end of the study and was significantly higher in T6 (P<0.05) than other treatments. From the present study, a daily water exchange of 20% could support higher stocking densities of koi carp in tanks and result in high productivity, measured in terms of the number of marketable fish.
Keywords: Aquaculture management, Ornamental carp, Fish production, Water quality.
Citation: JHA, P. 2019. Evaluation of different water exchange regimes for optimizing growth and production of koi carp, Cyprinus carpio in tanks. Iranian Journal of Ichthyology 6(4): 283-291.
Introduction
Animal manure has been traditionally employed by culturists in India and neighbouring countries to augment the production of plankton, a natural food item for fish (Chakrabarti & Jana 1998; Gupta &
Noble 2001; Jha et al. 2004). However, using high amounts of animal manure can reduce the water quality (Boyd 1982; Singh et al. 1991) and thereby result in stress and impairment of normal metabolism in fish leading to fatigue, disease, and high mortality (Francis-Floyd 1990).
Ornamental fish, unlike food fish, are sold individually and have to be visually attractive to be accepted in the market, and stressed fish may be aesthetically unattractive to potential customers (Jha
& Barat 2005a). Hence, particular pond management
techniques need to be developed to create the best environment for the fish.
Since most farmers in India cannot afford high- cost recirculating systems or aeration, manual water exchange in production tanks has been the only viable alternative to intensify production in ornamental fish culture units (Jha et al. 2004; Jha &
Barat 2005a). On average, about 65.71% farmers in neighboring Bangladesh exchange water regularly in their ponds (Shofiquzzoha et al. 2017). An exchange of 5% of standing water volume from the tanks every day resulted in high production of koi carp, Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 stocked at a density of 0.2 fish/L with a direct application of poultry manure (Jha & Barat 2005a) and 0.3 fish/L with application of a pellet diet (Jha & Barat 2005b).
Ornamental fish farming has been subjected to a variety of experimentation to increase yields and profitability (Jha 2007). Exogenous introduction of live plankton (mixed species) substantially enhanced weight gain and reduced mortality of ornamental fish in some of our earlier experiments, while maintaining better water quality standards, compared to application of organic manure or pellet diet (Jha &
Barat 2005c; Jha et al. 2006, 2007, 2008; Jha 2017).
According to Jha (2010), under such conditions, the stocking density could be increased up to 1.0 fish/L for the rainbow shark, Epalzeorhynchus frenatus (Fowler, 1934). Here, the water exchange rate was 10% of the standing water volume from the tanks, once every day. Water exchange helps in maintaining water quality as it flush the excess phytoplankton and toxic metabolites not assimilated by the phytoplankton, thereby minimizing diurnal fluxes in dissolved oxygen (Chamberlain 1987). It was hypothesized that if the water exchange rate could be optimized, the water quality could be further enhanced to support a greater stocking density. In the present study, the effect of different water exchange regimes on the growth, survival and number of marketable fish produced of koi carp, Cyprinus carpio reared in outdoor concrete tanks at different stocking densities was compared.
Materials and Methods
Koi carp larvae of the same parental stock were obtained from the hatchery of Rainbow Ornamental Fish Farm, Raninagar, Jalpaiguri, India and acclimatized in 24 outdoor concrete tanks (L×W×H:
2.13×0.91×1.22m; capacity: 2000L) for 1 week prior to the experiment. The culture experiments were also conducted on the same fish farm. The guidelines for experimentation under the “Breeding of and Experiments on Animals (Control and Supervision) Rules, 1998” (amended during 2001 and 2006) of the Govt. of India were adhered during experimentation.
About three-week old fish larvae (0.15±0.012g) were cultured for three months (02 March to 31 May’
2011) under six treatment regimes in 18 outdoor
concrete tanks (size and capacity mentioned above), and maintained at stocked densities of 0.5 fish/l (T1 and T2); 1.0 fish/l (T3 and T4); and 1.5 fish/l (T5 and T6). There were three replicates for each treatment.
The water exchange rate was 10% (of the total volume in a tank) once daily in T1, T3, and T5, and twice daily in T2, T4, and T6.
A single layer of plastic bird netting was used to cover the tanks. Constant water levels were maintained in the tanks by supplying ground water periodically to compensate for the loss due to evaporation. Exogenous plankton (freshly collected and of mixed nature) was applied at 20% body weight of stocked fish once daily in all the treatments. This higher dose of food application was due to the fact that the plankton was wet and contained moisture.
Fish were fed slightly in excess of satiation to eliminate the possibility of the food supply being a limiting factor to growth.
The ponds used for culturing the plankton were fertilized with poultry manure at 0.26kg/m3 at the beginning and subsequently once every 10 days (Jha et al. 2004). Plankton samples were collected with a plankton net made of standard bolting silk cloth (No.
21 with 77 mesh/cm2) once a month from the plankton culture ponds. Collected plankton samples were concentrated to 20ml and preserved in 4%
formalin. The plankton abundance and species diversity in the plankton culture ponds (Table 1) give an impression of the plankton that was actually available for the fish in the culture tanks. Cladocerans were in higher abundance (41.99%), compared to copepods (38.34%), rotifers (12.85%) and phytoplankton (6.82%).
Water samples were collected once a week at 9:00 hrs. Water quality parameters were estimated according to standard methods as described by APHA (1998). pH was measured in situ using a portable pH meter (Hanna Instruments, Rua do Pindelo, Portugal). The temperature was recorded by a centigrade thermometer. Individual fish weights were recorded both at the beginning of the experiment and during harvest. Five hundred fish
were randomly collected from each tank and weighed individually to the nearest 1mg. For this, the fish were anesthetized with 0.04g/l of tricaine methane sulphonate (MS-222). Dead fish were removed daily, they were not replaced during the course of study, and differences between the number of fish stocked and the number of fish at harvest were used to calculate the percentage of mortality in each treatment. Percentages of final survival and deformities were normalized using angular transformation (Mosteller & Youtz 1961) before being subjected to further statistical analysis. The specific growth rate (SGR; %/ day) for each treatment was calculated as SGR = 100 [(ln Wt – ln W0) / t]; where W0 and Wt are the initial and final live weight of the fish (g), respectively, and (t) is culture period in days (Ricker 1975).
A one-way ANOVA procedure was performed to detect significant differences in water quality parameters as well as growth (wet weight), survival, SGR and deformities among treatments. A Tukey’s test (Zar 1999) was used to compare and rank means.
A level of significance of P<0.05 was used. The number of marketable fish at the end of growth period was calculated using the function for a normal
distribution curve, where z=(y-)/; y is the lowest marketable weight (g), is the mean weight of the population, is the standard deviation of the total weight and z follows the standard normal probability distribution which determines the probability of finding fish above a given range. The number of marketable fish (n) was then determined using the table value of the normal probability distribution (P) as follows: n=(1-P)* h; h is a total number of produced minus deformed or damaged fish.
Results
There were noticeable differences in water quality among the treatments (Table 2). Water temperature was 21-34°C during the 90 days. Values of dissolved oxygen were highest in the T2, followed by T4, T1, T6, T3 and T5 (P<0.05; Table 2). The T5 treatment showed the highest concentrations of conductivity, NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, PO4-P, and bicarbonate alkalinity, which were significantly higher (P<0.05) than the other treatments. The final body weight of koi carp ranged from 4.01 to 8.22g in the different treatments (Table 3). At harvest, maximum weight gain was achieved in the T2, followed by T4, T1, T6, T3 and T5 in descending order (P<0.05). There was Table 1. Species composition, average abundance (no./l) and relative abundance (% of total numbers) of planktonic organisms present in the plankton culture ponds.
Plankton no./l %
Daphnia 410.35 14.02
Moina 370.25 12.65
Ceriodaphnia 298.15 10.19
Bosmina 150.35 5.14
Cladocera 1229.1 41.99
Cyclops 555.95 18.99
Diaptomus 25.8 0.88
Nauplii 540.35 18.46
Copepoda 1122.1 38.34
Brachionus 255.5 8.73
Keratella 120.5 4.12
Rotifera 376 12.85
Chlorella 58.8 2.01
Navicula 48.2 1.65
Spirogyra 65.35 2.23
Scenedesmus 1.35 0.05
Phacus 15.75 0.54
Synedra 10.25 0.35
Phytoplankton 199.7 6.82
Total Plankton 2926.9 –
a significant difference (P<0.05) in the survival of koi carp among the treatments, ranging from 56.43%
(T5) to 96.32% (T2). The percentage of fish with deformities was significantly higher in T5 (Table 3).
To determine the output of marketable fish, the percentage and number of fish exceeding a total weight of 5g were estimated from the size-frequency distribution at the end of the study. Although 99.99%
of all the fish harvested in the T2 and T4 tanks could be marketed, compared to 93.79% in T6, in terms of total numbers, the number of marketable fish was significantly higher in T6 (P<0.05) than the other treatments (Table 4).
Discussion
For the tanks maintained under any particular stocking density, significantly lower dissolved oxygen concentrations and higher free CO2, PO4-P, NH4-N, NO2-N, and NO3-N concentrations could be observed with low rate of water exchange (T1, T3, and T5 treatments), compared to the treatments with higher water exchange (T2, T4, and T6). In an earlier experiment, a lack of water exchange significantly reduced the water quality in koi carp ponds (Jha &
Barat 2005a). According to Hopkins et al. (1993), both water exchange rates and stocking density influenced the water quality parameters in intensive Table 2. Mean±Standard Error of water quality parameters (in mg/l) analyzed for the six treatments at weekly intervals during the 3-month growth period. Means with a different letter as superscript are significantly different (P<0.05).
Parameters Treatments
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
pH (range) 6.5–8.3 6.7–8.5 5.6–7.3 6.5–8.5 5.5–7.8 6.2–7.6
Dissolved oxygen 7.02±0.32 c 7.99±0.30 a 5.14±0.11 e 7.33±0.39 b 4.57±0.44 f 6.34±0.30 d Free CO2 2.19±0.26 b 1.03±0.14 c 3.27±0.27 ab 1.89±0.25 bc 3.97±0.67 a 3.11±0.44 ab Total alkalinity 110.69±11.53 c 41.80 ±6.21 e 155.09±15.12 b 80.11±4.14 d 176.25±10.06 a 138.69±17.07 bc PO4 – P 0.228±0.35 d 0.050±0.05 f 0.438±0.17 b 0.115±0.27 e 0.510±0.10 a 0.322±0.16 c NH4 – N 0.298±0.45 d 0.066±0.04 f 0.561±0.05 b 0.152±0.5 e 0.768±0.14 a 0.361±0.21 c NO2 – N 0.132±0.08 bc 0.022±0.06 d 0.179±0.11 ab 0.057±0.012 e 0.219±0.05 a 0.155±0.17 b NO3 – N 0.242±0.40 c 0.124±0.11 d 0.323±0.15 b 0.197±0.2 cd 0.455±0.23 a 0.301±0.16 bc
Table 3. Growth performance, survival, and deformities estimated in koi carp after rearing in different treatments for 3 months. Data in the same rows with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05).
Parameters Treatments
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Initial body weight (g±SE) 0.15±0.012a 0.15±0.012a 0.15±0.012a 0.15±0.012a 0.15±0.012a 0.15±0.012a Final body weight (g±SE) 6.54±0.09c 8.22±0.12a 4.62±0.07e 7.09±0.06b 4.01±0.16f 5.98±0.12d
Weight gain (g±SE) 6.39±0.09c 8.07±0.12a 4.47±0.07e 6.94±0.06b 3.86±0.16f 5.83±0.12d
Survival (%) 81.75bc 96.32 a 68.25d 85.55b 56.43e 75.15c
Deformed individuals (%) 4.10e 2.33 f 11.90c 7.25d 23.77a 16.89 b
Table 4. The average number of marketable koi carp (those heavier than 5.0g) produced, together with marketable fish produced expressed as a percentage of the number of fish stocked (A) and as a percentage of total number of fish produced* (B) in the different treatments.
Treatment Number of fish stocked (fish/ pond)
Number of marketable fish produced*
(fish/ pond)
Marketable fish (%)
A B
T1 1000 761.45 d 76.15 97.99
T2 1000 939.95 c 93.99 99.99
T3 2000 93.21 e 4.66 8.15
T4 2000 1565.99 ab 78.30 99.99
T5 3000 17.33 f 0.58 1.77
T6 3000 1640.31 a 54.68 93.79
*Excluding deformed fish. Different superscripts in a column represent statistically significant differences (P<0.05).
shrimp ponds.
Accumulating water quality concentrations within low exchange water recirculation aquaculture systems can negatively impact cultured species (Deviller et al. 2005; Davidson et al. 2009, 2011;
Martins et al. 2009a, 2009b). There is increasing evidence which put forward the view that even low NO3-N concentrations that were earlier considered to be harmless (Colt & Tomasso 2001; Colt 2006), could cause chronic toxicity to various species (Hamlin 2005; Van Bussel et al. 2012; Davidson et al. 2014). Good et al. (2009) reported high mortality in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum, 1792) cultured in a recirculation aquaculture system with low water flushing.
An increase in the nitrite content in pond water could lead to considerable stress on the fish resulting in a decreased growth rate, tissue damage, and mortality (Lewis & Morris 1986). An adverse impact of nitrite is the oxidation of haemoglobin to methaemoglobin (Kroupova et al. 2005), which reduces the total oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood (Cameron 1971). Fish having higher stores of glycogen in the liver and can derive a greater portion of their energy requirement from anaerobic glycolysis. Lowering their requirement for oxygen, they may cope with elevated levels of methaemoglobin for longer periods (Perrone &
Meade 1977). Compared to adult fish, larvae and juveniles have considerably lower amount of glycogen stores in the liver (Coban & Sen 2011). In our experiment, lower growth of fish larvae in the T5, T3 and T6 treatments could be affected by the higher nitrite levels. A negative effect of nitrite exposure on common carp respiration and growth has been reported by Korwin-Kossakowski & Ostaszewska (2003).
Unionized ammonia is also regarded as highly poisonous to fish (Arillo et al. 1981). Although unionized ammonia was not measured in the current experiment, according to Sinha et al. (2012), the toxic effects of ammonia exposure to aquatic animals strongly occur in high concentrations of unionized
ammonium because it can readily diffuse through the gill membranes. In the current study, the average NH4-N in T5 was 0.768mg/l, when the pH was in the range of 5.5-7.8 and the temperature was between 21- 34°C. Under these conditions, the percentage of NH3
in the water was estimated to be about 2% of the NH4-N (Emerson et al. 1975), i.e. 0.015mg/l, which is below the threshold limit of 0.44mg/l. However, according to Parma de Croux & Loteste (2004), even an incidental increase in the pH to more than 8.0 in such a situation could lead to high mortality due to a significant increase in NH3 toxicity. One concern with high levels of water exchange is that it could flush out nitrifying bacteria resulting in reduced nitrification and increased ammonia concentrations (Milstein et al. 2001). However, in our experiment, under any particular fish stocking density, the treatments with higher water exchange (T2, T4 or T6) recorded significantly lower NH4-N concentrations, compared to the treatments with lower water exchange (T1, T3 or T5).
The water quality of the fish pond influences the protein conversion efficiency in fish. Under reduced water quality parameters, the fish are stressed and this affects the utilization of the protein in the diet (Ajiboye et al. 2015). Perhaps the significantly high level of nutrients along-with low dissolved oxygen concentration in the T5 and T3 treatments lowered the grazing activity of the carp and is in agreement with earlier results (Jha et al. 2004, 2008; Jha & Barat 2005a). Ponds with high water exchange rates will tend to produce bigger fish compared to ponds with limited or no water exchange, due to poor water quality and lack of dissolved oxygen that can breakdown the ammonia released through excretion (Nkengayi 2011). Increased mortality might also arise due to reduced feed intake when water quality is not of optimal quality (Asano et al. 2003). These factors probably influenced the low growth and survival rates of koi carp in the T5 and T3 treatments.
The percentage of marketable fish could be considered reasonable in tanks with high water exchange (T2, T4 and T6), and a combination of low
stocking density with low water exchange (T2). The stocking density influenced the growth rate and mortality. In fact, the growth and survival were higher in T2, T4, and T1 (in descending order), compared to the other treatments (both T1 and T2 had the low stocking densities). A combination of higher stocking density and low water exchange resulted in higher mortalities (T5).
Fish stocking density is a very important factor determining the productivity of a culture system (Kaiser et al. 1997). At a low stocking density and before attainment of carrying capacity, the fish grow properly and stocking density does not affect fish growth (Ronald et al. 2014). This probably explains the high growth rates in the T1 and T2 treatments.
However, the density should be the resultant value of the environmental requirements of a given species and broadly understood economic efficiency (Holm et al. 1990; Szkudlarek & Zakes 2002). Since the number of marketable fish was significantly higher in T6 (1640.31) and T4 (1565.99), compared to the other treatments, it could be suggested that the higher stocking densities could be applied, in combination with a higher water exchange rate. Whether the T6 was a more economically efficient treatment, compared to the T4 or vice versa could be argued in terms of the procuring rate of the fish larvae (3000 larvae were stocked in each T6 ponds, compared to 2000 larvae in the T4) and the wholesale rate of a 3- month old fish (about 84 additional marketable fish was produced in the T6 tanks, compared to T4); and these rates may vary around the world.
From the present study, it appeared that a daily water exchange of 20% could support higher stocking densities of koi carp in tanks and result in high productivity, measured in terms of the number of marketable fish. Further research on the effect of different frequency of water exchange in ornamental fish tanks needs to be conducted.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to M.N. Moitra and R. Ray of P.D. Women’s College, Jalpaiguri, India for their
assistance in conducting in some of the water-quality experiments. Kripan Sarkar, the owner of the Rainbow Ornamental Fish Farm, Jalpaiguri, India, provided the fish and experimental support.
References
Ajiboye, A.O.; Awogbade, A.A. & Babalola, O.A. 2015.
Effects of water exchange on water quality parameters, nutrient utilization and growth of African catfish (Clarias gariepinus). International Journal of Livestock Production 6: 57-60.
APHA. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, USA.
Arillo, A.; Margiocco, C.; Melodia, F.; Mensi, P. &
Schenone, G. 1981. Ammonia toxicity mechanism in fish: studies on rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri Rich.).
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 5: 316-328.
Asano, L.; Ako, H.; Shimizu, E. & Tamaru, C.S. 2003.
Limited water exchange production systems for freshwater ornamental fish. Aquaculture Research 34: 937-941.
Boyd, C.E. 1982. Water Quality Management in Pond Fish Culture. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, B.V., Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Cameron, J.N. 1971. Methaemoglobin in erythrocytes of rainbow trout. Comparative Biochemistry &
Physiology A 40: 743-749.
Chakrabarti, R. & Jana, B.B. 1998. Effects on growth and water quality of feeding exogenous plankton compared to use of manure in the culture of Mrigal, Cirrhinus mrigala, and Rohu, Labeo rohita fry in tanks. Journal of Applied Aquaculture 8: 87-95.
Chamberlain, G.W. 1987. Intensification reasonable from economic point of view. Coastal Aquaculture 4:
1-7.
Coban, M.Z. & Sen, D. 2011. Examination of liver and muscle glycogen and blood glucose levels of Capoeta umbla (Heckel, 1843) living in Hazar Lake and Keban Dam Lake (Elazig, Turkey). African Journal of Biotechnology 10: 10271-10279.
Colt, J. 2006. Water quality requirements for reuse systems. Aquaculture Engineering 34: 143-156.
Colt, J.E. & Tomasso J.R. 2001. Hatchery water supply and treatment. In: G.A. Wedemeyer (Ed.), Fish Hatchery Management, 2nd ed., American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, USA. pp: 91-186.
Davidson, J.; Good, C.; Welsh, C.; Brazil, B. &
Summerfelt, S., 2009. Heavy metal and waste metabolite accumulation and their potential effect on
rainbow trout performance in a replicated water reuse system operated at low or high flushing rates.
Aquaculture Engineering 41: 136-145.
Davidson, J.; Good, C.; Welsh, C. & Summerfelt, S.T., 2011. Abnormal swimming behavior and increased deformities in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss cultured in low exchange water recirculating aquaculture systems. Aquaculture Engineering 45:
109-117.
Davidson, J.; Good, C.; Welsh, C. & Summerfelt, S.T.
2014. Comparing the effects of high vs. low nitrate on the health, performance, and welfare of juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss within water recirculating aquaculture systems. Aquaculture Engineering 59: 30-40.
Deviller, G.; Palluel, O.; Aliaume, C.; Asanthi, H.;
Sanchez, W.; Franco Nava, M.A.; Blancheton, J.P. &
Casellas, C. 2005. Impact assessment of various rearing systems on fish health using multibiomarker response and metals accumulation. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 61: 89-97.
Emerson, K.; Russo, R.C.; Lund, R.E. & Thurston, R.V.
1975. Aqueous ammonia equilibrium calculations:
effect of pH and temperature. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 32: 2379-2383.
Francis-Floyd, R. 1990. Stress – its role in fish diseases. IFAS Circular 919. Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.
Good, C.; Davidson, J.; Welsh, C.; Brazil, B.; Snekvik, K. & Summerfelt, S. 2009. The impact of water exchange rate on the health and performance of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss in water recirculation aquaculture systems. Aquaculture 294:
80-85.
Gupta, M.V. & Noble, F. 2001. Integrated chicken–fish farming. In: M. Halwart, J. Gonsalves, M. Prein, (Eds.), Integrated Agriculture– Aquaculture: A Primer, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 407, FAO, Rome, Italy. pp: 49-53.
Hamlin, H.J. 2005. Nitrate toxicity in Siberian sturgeon (Acipenser baeri). Aquaculture 253: 688-693.
Holm, J.C.; Refstie, T. & Bo, S. 1990. The effect of fish density and feeding regimes on individual growth rate and mortality in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 89: 225-232.
Hopkins, J.S.; Hamilton, R.D.; Sandier, P.A.; Browdy, C.L. & Stokes, A.D. 1993. Effect of water exchange rate on production, water quality, effluent characteristics and nitrogen budgets of intensive shrimp ponds. Journal of World Aquaculture Society 24: 304-320.
Jha, P. 2007. Effect of different management regimes on
the survival and growth of exotic ornamental fish, koi carp (Cyprinus carpio L.), under tropical conditions.
Ph.D. Thesis, University of North Bengal, Siliguri, India.
Jha, P. 2010. Introduction of exogenous plankton as food allows for increased stocking density for intensive rearing of freshwater ornamental cyprinid, Epalzeorhynchus frenatus. Archivos de Zootecnia 59:
11-20.
Jha, P. 2017. Growth, survival rate, and number of marketable fish produced of gold fish, Carassius auratus (L.) in outdoor earthen ponds with endogenous culture of Daphnia sp. or Moina sp. and exogenous supply of mixed plankton. Volumul de Lucrări Ştiinţifice - Seria Zootehnie 67: 14-20.
Jha, P.; Sarkar, K. & Barat, S. 2004. Effect of different application rates of crowding and poultry excreta on water quality and growth of ornamental carp, Cyprinus carpio vr. koi, in concrete tanks. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 4: 17-22.
Jha, P. & Barat, S. 2005a. The effect of water exchange rate on water quality, growth and production of ornamental carp, Cyprinus carpio var. koi L., cultured in concrete tanks manured with poultry excreta.
Archives of Polish Fisheries 13: 77-90.
Jha, P. & Barat, S. 2005b. The effect of stocking density on growth, survival rate, and number of marketable fish produced of koi carps, Cyprinus carpio var. koi, in concrete tanks. Journal of Applied Aquaculture 17:
89-102.
Jha, P. & Barat, S. 2005c. Management induced changes in food selection, growth and survival of koi carp, Cyprinus carpio var. koi L., in tropical ponds. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture - Bamidgeh 57: 115-124.
Jha, P.; Barat, S. & Nayak, C.R. 2006. A comparison of growth, survival rate and number of marketable koi carp produced under different management regimes in concrete tanks and earthen ponds. Aquaculture International 14: 615-626.
Jha, P.; Barat, S. & Nayak, C.R. 2008. Fish production, water quality and bacteriological parameters of koi carp ponds under live food and manure-based management regimes. Zoological Research 29: 165- 173.
Jha, P.; Barat, S. & Sarkar, K. 2007. Comparative effect of live-food and manured treatments on water quality and production of ornamental carp, Cyprinus carpio var. koi L., during winter, summer, monsoon and post monsoon grow out experiments in concrete tanks.
Journal of Applied Ichthyology 23: 87-92.
Kaiser, H.; Britz, P.; Endemann, F.; Haschick, R.; Jones, C.L.W.; Koranteng, B.; Kruger, D.P.; Lockyear, J.F.;
Oellermann, L.K.; Olivier, A.P.; Rouhani, Q. &
Hecht, T. 1997. Development of technology for ornamental fish aquaculture in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 93: 351-354.
Korwin-Kossakowski, M. & Ostaszewska, T. 2003.
Histopathological changes in juvenile carp Cyprinus carpio L. continuously exposed to high nitrite levels from hatching. Archives of Polish Fisheries 11: 57- 67.
Kroupova, H.; Machova, J. & Svobodova, Z. 2005.
Nitrite influence on fish: a review. Veterinární medicína–Praha 50: 461-471.
Lewis Jr., W.M. & Morris, D.P. 1986. Toxicity of nitrite to fish: a review. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 115: 183-195.
Martins, C.I.M.; Pistrin, M.G.; Ende, S.S.W.; Eding, E.H. & Verreth, J.A.J. 2009a. The accumulation of substances in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) affects embryonic and larval development in common carp, Cyprinus carpio. Aquaculture 291: 65- 73.
Martins, C.I.M.; Ochola, D.; Ende, S.S.W.; Eding, E.H.
& Verreth, J.A.J. 2009b. Is growth retardation present in Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus cultured in low water exchange recirculating aquaculture systems?
Aquaculture 298: 43-50.
Milstein, A.; Avnimelech, Y.; Zoran, M. & Joseph, D.
2001. Growth performance of hybrid bass and hybrid tilapia in conventional and active suspension intensive ponds. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture - Bamidgeh53: 147-157.
Mosteller, F. & Youtz, C. 1961. Tables of the Freeman – Tukey transformations for the binomial and poisson distributions. Biometrika 48: 433-440.
Nkengayi, A.E. 2011. The effects of water exchange and water quality on growth and survival of Clarias gariepinus (fingerlings) along the Mount Cameroon Region. Student Papers, Lund University Libraries, Lund, Sweden (https://lup.lub.lu.se/student-papers /search/ publication/8164305).
Parma de Croux, M.J. & Loteste, A. 2004. Lethal effects of elevated pH and ammonia on juveniles of neotropical fish Colosoma macropomum (Pisces, Caracidae). Journal of Environmental Biology 25: 7- 10.
Perrone, S.J. & Meade, T.L. 1977. Protective effect of chloride on nitrite toxicity to Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 34: 486-492.
Ricker, W.E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Bulletin of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 191: 1-382.
Ronald, N.; Gladys, B. & Gasper, E. 2014. The effects of stocking density on the growth and survival of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry at Son fish farm, Uganda. Journal of Aquaculture Research and Development 5: 222.
Shofiquzzoha, A.F.M.; Halim, M.A. & Islam, M.S.
2017. Study of the present status and the constraints of commercially important small fish species culture at farm levels in Jessore region. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies 5: 148-152.
Singh, R.; Toor, H.S. & Sehgal, H.S. 1991. Toxic effects of some pond manures on development of egg and larval survival of common carp. Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics 6: 63-68.
Sinha, A.K.; Liew, H.J.; Diricx, M.; Blust, R. & De Boeck, G. 2012. The interactive effects of ammonia exposure: nutritional status and exercise on metabolic and physiological responses in goldfish (Carassius auratus L.). Aquatic Toxicology 109: 33-46.
Szkudlarek, M. & Zakes, Z. 2002. The effect of stock density on the effectiveness of rearing pikepearch Sander lucioperca (L.) summer fry. Archives of Polish Fisheries 10: 115-119.
Van Bussel, C.G.J.; Schroeder, J.P.; Wuertz, S. &
Schulz, C. 2012. The chronic effect of nitrate on production performance and health status of juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture 326-329: 163- 167.
Zar, J.H. 1999. Biostatistical Analysis. 4th ed. Prentice Hall International Inc., New Jersey, USA.
291
http://www.ijichthyol.org
هلاقم یشهوژپ
یبایزرا میژر
یاه یتلادابم توافتم
بآ یارب هنیهب یزاس دشر و دیلوت روپک
،یلومعم
Cyprinus carpio رد
نزاخم
پ جاریوتیر
*اهج
،یسانشروناج هورگ .ناتسودنه ،یبرغ لاگنب ،جناگیار ،ایلاایدیواهام تاناردنروس جناگیار جلاک
:هدیکچ
ریثات میژر ،یلومعم روپک ءاقب و دشر رب بآ توافتم یتلادابم یاه Cyprinus carpio
نورب نوتکنلاپوئز اب هدش نیمأت نزاخم رد هب داز
دروم ییاذغ عبنم ناونع
( یهام یاهورلا .تفرگ رارق یسررب 012
/ 0±15 / 0 ب یجراخ ینوتب نزاخم رد )مرگ ه
ص و تر fish/l 5 / 0 ( 2 وT 1 ،)T fish/l 0 / 1 ( 4 وT 3 و ،)T fish/l 5 / 1 ( 6 وT 5 )T
هب و ،هریخذ هام هس تدم
شرورپ بآ هلدابم خرن .دندش هداد 10
دصرد رد 1 ،T 3 وT 5 رد و ،زور رد راب کیT T2
، T4 و T6 ب ه نژیسکا ریداقم .دوب زور رد راب ود تروص
هب لولحم رد بیترت T2
، T4 ، T1 ، T6 ، T3 و T5 .دوب نیرتشیب رامیت
T5 تظلغ نیرتشیب ،ییاناسر یاه
N - NH4
N ، - NO2
N ، - NO3
P ، - PO4
یب و ناشن ار ییایلق تانبرک
ب هک داد ه زا فلتخم دراوم رد یلومعم روپک ندب ییاهن نزو .دوب رتشیب رگید دراوم زا یراد ینعم روط 01
/ 4 ات 22 / 8 لصاح نزو هنیشیب ،تشادرب رد .دوب ریغتم مرگ
هب رد بیترت 2 ،T 4 ،T 1 ،T 6
، T 3 وT 5 بT ه زا هک دش هدهاشم هدش یسررب دراوم نیب رد یلومعمروپک ءاقب رد یراد ینعم توافت .دمآ تسد 43
/ 56 دصرد ( 5 ات )T 32 / 96
دصرد ( 2 لک نزو زا رتارف یهام دادعت و دصرد .دوب ریغتم )T 5
هزادنا عیزوت زا هعلاطم نایاپ رد ،مرگ -
ب و دش هدز نیمخت یناوارف ه
ینعم تروص رد یراد
6 (T 05 /
>0 )P زا
بآ هنازور هلدابم ،رضاح هعلاطم هب هجوت اب .دوب رتشیب رگید دراوم 20
دصرد یم یم و دنک تیامح نزاخم رد ار یلومعم روپک زا یرتلااب یکوتسا یاه مکارت دناوت دناوت
.دوش شورف لباق یهام دادعت بسحرب رتشیب دیلوت هب رجنم تاملک :یدیلک تیریدم یزبآ
،یرورپ روپک
،یتنیز دیلوت
،یهام تیفیک بآ .
