Implementation of the issues-based approach in teaching certificate geography

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Title Implementation of the issues-based approach in teaching_{certificate geography}

Author(s) Kwan, Kin-sheung.; 關健常.

Citation

Issued Date 2005

URL http://hdl.handle.net/10722/41187

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ABSTRACT

Implementation of the Issues-based Approach in Teaching Certificate Geography

submitted by

Kwan Kin Sheung

For the degree of Master of Education at the University of Hong Kong

August 2005

This exploratory study examines perceptions by teachers of issues-based teaching and factors affecting the level of implementation in the context of the Hong Kong Certificate level geography curriculum. This approach was introduced by the Hong Kong Curriculum Development Council (CDC) in 1998 and adopted by the junior secondary levels (S.1 to S.3) with the Certificate Level starting in 2003. It is argued that teachers’ perceptions regarding the curriculum, its context and the factors influencing the syllabus have important effects on its implementation and yet seem largely to have been ignored. The study illuminates the essential perceptions of the teachers and describes the factors affecting implementation. The research objectives were to: (1) examine the understanding of issues-based teaching by teachers; (2) investigate their extent of implementing issues-based teaching in the classroom and (3) find out reasons for different levels of implementation when teaching. The methodology was interpretive using a qualitative case study approach. The findings are based on interviews and lesson observations of three Certificate Level geography teachers. Findings exposed six dimensions of teachers’ understanding of issues-based teaching and four factors affecting the levels of implementation in the real situations. The six dimensions were: (i) relevance; (ii) topic appropriateness; (ii) enquiry; (iv) teacher role; (v) classroom organization and (vi) student focus. The four factors were: (i) time; (ii) workload; (iii) student abilities; and (v) school context. The three teachers in different school contexts exhibited varying levels of using issues-based teaching in classroom. Levels of implementation did not just imply the use of a particular pedagogy but also the extent of adaptation to the overall change proposed in the recent educational reforms in Hong Kong.

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Implementation of the

Issues-based Approach

in Teaching

Certificate Geography

By

Kwan Kin Sheung

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Education

at the University of Hong Kong

August 2005

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Declaration

I declare that this thesis represents my own work, except

where due acknowledgement is made, and that it has not been

previously included in a thesis, dissertation or report submitted

to this University or to any other institution for a degree,

diploma or other qualification.

Signed ……….

Name: Kwan Kin Sheung

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take pleasure in expressing my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Philip Stimpson who spent much of his time and provided me direction and suggestions over the production of this study. Not only were his insightful advices with broad knowledge basis and familiarity of the research procedure gave me practical and useful improvements when doing this project, but also my own developmental path. I would also like to thank my wife, Celia Tse, for her generosity in providing time on proof-reading and constant support to me.

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Fig. 2.3 Interactive Factors Affecting Implementation 30 Fig. 3.1 Two dimensions on which approaches to observation can be differentiated 43 Fig. 3.2 Stimulus and responses: Two dimensions of asking 46 Fig. 5.1 Possible schematic profile of Stages of Concern showed by the three teachers 75 Fig. 5.2 Grounded model of issues-based teaching 78 Fig. 5.3 Individual perception and factors affecting curriculum implementation 83 Fig. 5.4 Factors affecting the levels of implementation of issues-based teaching 84 Fig. 5.5 Development of interest, use and concern of implementing issues-based teaching 89

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Syntax of the Inquiry Training Model 12 Table 2.2 Syntax of the Social Science Inquiry Approach 14 Table 2.3 Syntax of issues-based approach 16 Table 2.4 Structures of geography curricula of different 18

Table 2.5 Stages of Concern 25

Table 2.6 Levels of use of an innovation 26 Table 2.7 Facilitators and obstacles to implementation 29 Table 3.1 Characteristics of case study researches 34

Table 3.2 Advantages of case study 37

Table 3.3 Strengths and weaknesses of case study 38 Table 3.4 Steps to organize and conduct a case study research 39 Table 3.5 Different types of interviews 48 Table 3.6 Stages of an interview investigation 50 Table 4.1 Topics used to define issues-based teaching by the 3 interviewees 56 Table 4.2 Qualitative analysis of classroom observation for the three teachers 63

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Society in Hong Kong has changed rapidly and these social changes, as in other parts

of the world, have necessitated educational reform. The overall aims of education

set out by the Education Commission are to evaluate every person to obtain all-round

development …… so that he / she is capable of life long learning, critical thinking,

innovating and adopting to change …… (CDC, 2000, p.3). The focus is on deep

learning and creative, critical thinking combined with social relevance. For subjects,

the challenge is to find strategies that can achieve their goals. Issues-based teaching

and learning has been the response in secondary geography. Yet indications are that

teachers have found difficulty with the approach. For varying reasons they have

changed the argued intention and procedures of issues-based teaching to

accommodate their own working situations and beliefs. This study investigates

teachers’ understanding and implementation of issues-based teaching seeing.

Perceptions of individual teachers towards the pedagogy and syllabus

influence practices and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.

Teachers may have the autonomy to vary pedagogies within the classroom practices

and levels of implementation will vary in extent and nature between individual

teachers from different contextual backgrounds. Education systems are holistic

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and external factors play important roles in determining the levels of implementation

of new curricula. Internal factors such as the teacher characteristic are important as

external factors such as the belief of society.

1.2 Issues-based Teaching in Geographical Education in Hong Kong

Issues-based approach to teaching in S.1 to S.3 geography has been implemented

since September 1998 and a new Certificate Education examination syllabus for S.4

and S.5 was implemented in September 2003 and examined in 2005. Perhaps as an

indication of the uncertainty of teachers and with the agreement of the geography

subject committee of the Hong Kong Education and Assessment Authority, the

examination was postponed to 2005. Conceptualization of the issues-based

teaching was problematic.

The approach used in the Certificate Level curriculum focuses on enquiry

which matches goals within the recent general educational reforms in Hong Kong.

It also seeks to promote student-centered and inductive teaching and learning.

Naish, Rawling and Hart (2002) stated that students as active participants in learning

and provision of more independent student activities are characteristics of

issues-based enquiry teaching approach. The level of implementation of

issues-based approach however depends on the situation in the classroom and the

culture and background of the teachers and schools. Fullan (2001) notes,

“education change depends on what teachers do and think – it is as simple and as

complex as that. It would all be easy if we could legislate changes in thinking”

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on the perceptions and interpretation of the teachers.

1.3 Research Objectives and Questions

The research comprises a situational evaluation of teachers thinking about an

issues-based approach in teaching geography in Hong Kong. Mark (2001) has

stated that teachers are important key players in curriculum implementation. The

reasons and implications behind the implementation of issues-based teaching in the

classroom is explored to monitor, evaluate, and suggest improvement regarding the

existing practice of issues-based teaching.

The objectives of the study are to:

1. study the perceptions of issues-based approach in teaching geography held by

teachers;

2. evaluate levels of implementation of issues-based approach in teaching

Certificate Level geography; and

3. find out the factors affecting the levels of implementation of teachers in using

issues-based approach for Certificate Level geography.

This corresponds to three research questions:

1. What is the understanding of issues-based teaching of the teachers?

2. What is the extent of implementing issues-based teaching?

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1.4 Scope and Conceptual Framework

All the key players of curriculum implementation, for instance, teachers, parents,

principals, the government officers, textbook publishers and even the students play

an important and influential role in the curriculum (Mark, 2001). It is essential to

understand the roles of key players in the current situations of teaching secondary

geography. This study focuses down to one of the key players, the teacher.

Issues-based teaching implies enquiry and student-centered pedagogy (Hong Kong

Examination and Assessment Authority, 2003) and the perceptions of teachers

towards this method directly influences curriculum implementation. Secondary

school geography teachers were selected as the major concern of this study because

they are the final arbiters as to what takes place in the classroom. They decide how

student learning will actually take place. They decide the extent to which one

approach is used or indeed whether it is used at all.

The conceptual framework of the study centers on teachers perception of a

curriculum or pedagogic innovation. The levels of implementation can be traced

out through classroom practice which is influenced by the perception of the teachers

and contextual factors. Through observations of classrooms using issues-based

teaching and through interviews of the geography teachers, the underlying reasons

for varying degree of implementation are examined. Figure 1.1 shows the

relationship between the four parts below, namely, the perceptions of the curriculum

and pedagogy of the teachers, factors affecting the levels of implementation and the

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Figure 1.1 Conceptual framework of the study

The perceptions of the curriculum and the issues-based pedagogy of the

teachers influence the extent of curriculum implementation and the levels of

curriculum implementation exhibited in classroom practice. The contextual factors

affecting the levels of implementation provide explanation of the extents of

curriculum implementation. The perceptions of the curriculum and pedagogy of the

teachers and the factors affecting the levels of implementation are influencing

mutually. The practices of issues-based teaching affecting the extents of curriculum

implementation.

The Concern-Based Adoption Model (CBAM) emphasizes “collective Perceptions of the curriculum and pedagogy of the teachers Factors affecting the levels of implementation Practices of issues-based teaching Extent of Curriculum Implementation

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change resulting from changes in individuals and how they relate to each other”

(Marsh & Wills, 1995, p.226). Such a method underpins thinking in the study.

CBAM works for the assumption that change or innovation adoption /

implementation is a highly personal experience and accomplished by individual first.

Institution or system cannot change until the individual with the change. The focus

is thus on the individual teacher and is concerned with (a) Stage of Concern

(awareness, informational, personal, management, consequence, collaboration and

refocusing) and (b) their Levels of Use (non-use, orientation, preparation, mechanical

use, routine use, integration and renewal). Further details are given in Chapter 2.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study is valuable for several reasons. Firstly, issues-based approach of

teaching is something relatively new for the geography syllabus in Hong Kong and

there is little research concerning this specific issue in terms of the relationship

between actual practices within the lesson, the perceptions of key players or

stakeholders towards this topic. This research provides an initial study of

issues-based practice.

Secondly, the changes of the education system are rapid in recent year in

Hong Kong. Question aims as to whether suggested approaches are successful.

This study provides one small evaluation of the innovations suggested in the overall

reform document. It can illuminate the extent to which progress is made and the

degree to which modifications of policy are needed. In this sense the study is

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the government.

Thirdly, future change of education structure in 2009, with its 3+3+4

education reform (three years of junior secondary education, three years of senior

secondary education and four years of tertiary education), new subjects, such as the

liberal studies, integrated humanities will be emphasized which have at their core

issues-based teaching. This research study can provide some insight for the

implementation of these subjects.

1.6 Structure of the Dissertation

This dissertation is in five further Chapters (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 Flow chart showing the structure of this dissertation Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Chapter 3 Research Methodology

Chapter 4 Findings

Chapter 5 Discussion

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Chapter 2 provides a review of literature showing previous research on the

topic concerned. Theories, generalizations and explanations of the study will be

supported through this part of the dissertation. In Chapter 3, the research

methodology is explained and justified. The major methods of data collection

through interviews and classroom observations with a case study approach are

described. The advantages and weaknesses of case study approach are discussed.

In addition, the characteristics, pros and cons of the two major methods of data

collection are evaluated.

Findings from the interviews and observations are highlighted and

synthesized in Chapter 4 with reference to the three research questions. These

findings and results provide the basis for further elaboration and explanation in

Chapter 5. This part summarizes and contrasts the findings with reference to the

viewpoints in Chapter 2, that is the literature review. The conclusion of the

dissertation is in Chapter 6. Limitations are listed with reference to the research

design. Together with the dilemmas, tensions, issues, new research questions,

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

An issues-based approach of teaching in S.4 to S.5 Geography has been implemented

since September 2003. The rationales for the syllabus are to:

z keep the syllabus match with the international trend of education development;

z help students become geographical informed persons; and

z respond to teacher’s comments on the existing syllabus.

(Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority, 2003).

The approach focuses on enquiry which matches the recent general

educational reform in Hong Kong. It also promotes student-centered and inductive

teaching and learning. Nonetheless, as noted in Chapter 1, the level of

implementation of issues-based approach depends on the situation in the classroom

and the culture and background of the teachers and schools.

This Chapter reviews selected literature related to issues-based teaching

and its implementation. As such it expands some of the ideas in Chapter 1 and

forms a conceptual framework for the study. The Chapter is in four further parts,

discussing literature on issues-based approach geography and an issues-based

approach implementation of new approaches. They are grouped and listed below:

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z geographical education and issues-based approach;

z levels of implementing change; and

z factors affecting implementation.

2.2 Issues-based Teaching and Learning

In this section, the theoretical background of issues-based teaching and learning is

discussed. Two models of teaching provide backgrounds for the issues-based

approach and the nature of issues-based approach are examined.

2.2.1 Models of Teaching

Joyce and Weil (2004) grouped models of teaching into four families, namely, the

information-processing, personal, social and behavioural systems. The Inquiry

Training model in the information-processing family and the Social Science Inquiry

approach of the social family are the two models of teaching affecting and applying

by the issues-based approach of teaching and learning geography.

The Inquiry Training Model was developed by Richard Suchman in order

to teach students “a process for investigating and explaining unusual phenomena”

and it attempted to teach students “some of the skills and language of scholarly

inquiry” (Joyce & Weil, 2004, pp.55-56). Schrenker (1976) argued that inquiry

training increased the understanding of science, productivity in creative thinking as

well as skills for obtaining and analyzing information. Thus, it is a model which

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The goal of Inquiry Training Model is “to help students develop the

intellectual discipline and skills necessary to raise questions and search out answers

stemming from their curiosity” (Joyce & Weil, 2004, p.57). Besides, to convey to

students the attitude that “all knowledge is tentative” (Joyce & Weil, 2004, p.57) is

important. According to these goals, students aware that the viewpoints of other

persons can enrich their own thinking. The model stated that students inquire

naturally when they are puzzled, they can become conscious of and learn to analyze

their thinking strategies. As a result, new strategies can be taught directly by the

teacher and added to the students’ existing methods. Moreover, cooperative inquiry

enriches thinking and helps students to learn about the tentative, emergent nature of

knowledge and to appreciate other explanations (Joyce & Weil, 2004).

This model put emphasis on being aware of and master the inquiry process

as well as appeal and effective as a mode of acquiring and using information. The

syntax of the Inquiry Training Model is listed in Table 2.1 below.

Phase Processes Explanations

1 Confrontation with the problem Explain the procedures.

2 Data gathering – vertification Verify the nature of objects and conditions.

3 Data gathering –

experimentation

Hypothesize and test causal relationship.

4 Organizing, formulating an explanation

Formulate rules or explanations.

5 Analysis of the inquiry process Analyze inquiry strategy and develop more effective ones.

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Social Science Inquiry approach focused on the “improvement of society”

(Joyce & Weil, 2004. p.294), that is the solution of social problems. Massialas and

Cox (1966) are representatives of this approach, they argued that the most essential

goal of education should be “the reflective examination of values and issues of

current import” (p.12). According to Massialas and Cox (1966), there are three

main characteristics of a reflective classroom. Firstly, an open discussion within the

classroom is essential. This refers to the social aspects since “all views and

statements are solicited and accepted as propositions that merit examination” (p.12).

Secondly, the approach focuses on hypotheses. Knowledge is “viewed as

hypotheses that are continually tested and retested”(Joyce & Weil, 2004, p.294).

The Social Science Inquiry approach requires “a continual negotiation as the

members of a class and their teacher collect data relevant to the hypotheses, revise

their notions and try again”(Joyce & Weil, 2004, p.294). Thirdly, the use of fact as

evidence is important. The classroom is recognized “as a form where scientific

inquiry is engaged” (Massialas & Cox, 1966, p.115). Since students are willing to

modify and amend their ideas and views with reference to several factual evidences,

skills of logical formulation is required (Massialas & Cox, 1966).

There are six phases of the model, teacher initiates the inquiry and guide

the classroom moves from one phase to another. Students can carry out the inquiry

if they are able to do so (Joyce & Weil, 2004). The syntax of the model is in Table

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1 Orientation Present and clarify puzzling situation 2 Hypothesis Develop hypotheses from which to explore

3 Definition Define and clarify hypothesis

4 Exploration Explore hypothesis in terms of its assumptions and implications

5 Evidencing Gather facts and evidence to support hypothesis 6 Generalization Form generalized expression or solution Table 2.2 Syntax of the Social Science Inquiry Approach (Source: Joyce & Weil, 2004, p.299)

Both the Inquiry Training model in the information-processing family and

the Social Science Inquiry approach of the social family are similar to the

issues-based approach of teaching and learning in terms of processes and focuses.

All of them require an issue, a problem or a puzzling situation as the first stage, then,

data, information, facts and evidence are required to explain and analyze the issue

and situation.

2.2.2 The Nature of Issues-based Teaching and Learning

There are several rationales of issues-based approach of teaching and learning. In

the 1960s, the attitudes of students were regarded equally important as the learning

capacities (Marsden, 1995). There are needs to promote positive attitudes towards

the environment and other people, so, they formed part of the issues-based

framework. In addition, there is a shift of the curriculum of the secondary

education from a subject-centered approach which is more suitable for the academic

aspect to an integrated structure which more conducive to motivate less-able students

(Marsden, 1995). At that time, geography against the “abstraction, dehumanization

and retreat from social relevance that the positivism of the quantitative revolution

was seen to represent” (Marsden, 1995, p.140). There is a realization that what is

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(Stimpson & Tao, 1994). These rationales put geography into the category of

humanistic geography. Humanistic geography emphasizes the individual human

agency, its actions and the meanings underpinning them; and identifies human

judgment as part of the process of interpretation and decision-making (Atkins, 1988).

Issues-based approach of teaching and learning geography fulfills the requirement of

humanistic geography.

The development of environmental concern can be regarded as social

concerns for education. There is “different level of commitment to the coverage of

controversial social and environmental issues in secondary school geography”

(Marsden, 1995, p.141). In the 1980s, there are different intensities of

issue-pervasion of the curriculum, namely, issues-permeated geography, issues-based

geography and issues-dominated geography.

Stimpson and Tao (1994) clearly defined that issues-based teaching is “a

classroom strategy where the focus is on problems or questions facing contemporary

society” (p.3). The problems or questions act as “vehicles to develop concepts

within the framework of traditional school subject disciplines” (p.3). They stated

some advantages of issues-based approach for teaching and learning and are listed

below:

z application of knowledge and develop a context for learning;

z motivate students to learn and more real, relevant, tangible and interesting in

learning;

z develop citizenship;

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z provide opportunities for students to improve communication skills (pp.24-27).

Since issues-based approach is to structuring learning and teaching, there

are four stages of development:

1 Identification Starts with an issue, problem, question, or puzzling situation

2 Recognition Recognize the attitudes and beliefs of different parties

3 Clarification Clarify the facts and principles regarding the subject matter or topic

4 Understanding Interpret or resolve the issue

Table 2.3 Syntax of issues-based approach (Adopted from Stimpson & Tao, 1994, p.17)

Comparing the syntax of the two models of teaching stated in the previous

section, namely, the Inquiry Training model in the information-processing family

(Table 2.1) and the Social Science Inquiry approach (Table 2.2), with that of

issues-based approach (Table 2.3), there are some similarities. An issues-based

approach extracts the positive elements of the two models and is good for promoting

higher-order learning and teaching. The next section will discuss the geographical

education and the application of issues-based approach in Hong Kong.

2.3 Geographical Education and an Issues-based Approach

Geography has many interpretations and thus different understandings toward this

discipline (Mayhew, 2001). It is a multi-disciplinary science and study. However,

the essential elements in geographical study are (Goodall, 1987, pp.189-190):

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z ecological analysis, with an emphasis on people-environment relationships; and

z regional analysis, with an emphasis on region-building and areal differentiation.

Educators however, need a clear understanding regarding geographical

education itself. Stimpson (1996) argued that the study of geography is “concerned

with enabling people to make sense of the world around them and teaches children

how to learn about their surroundings” (p.194). This allows students to “make

sense of their world” (Stimpson, 1995, p.87). Nonetheless, the world may be made

sense of in different ways or within different paradigms.

CGE (1992) identifies two major paradigms (Table 2.4). There are:

regional and thematic. Within the latter, three sub-paradigms are recognized:

1. systematic;

2. systems and

3. issues-based.

The International Charter (CGE, 1992) represents both a statement of existing

approaches and a statement of options that may inform curriculum development in

education system around the world.

2.3.1 Geographical Education in Hong Kong since 1960s

Geographical education in Hong Kong’s secondary schools has like that in other

territories can be divided into changes over time. Each stage was dominated by a

basic approach of teaching. In the 1960s and 1970s, regional study was the main

approach in teaching secondary geography. A continental framework, using a

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(Speak, 1990). Teachers were “using the areal differentiation paradigm, or the

search for and description of unique areas, as the principal assumption guiding the

selection of research problems and methods of investigation to validate solutions”

(Biddle, 1979, pp. 8-13). The study of areal differentiation focused very much on

content knowledge, the teaching of geographical skills were not emphasized and

values were ignored or remained implicit.

Paradigm Specification Regional studies local community

home region home country home continent

other continents and regional groupings the world

global structures

systematic approach physical geography human geography issues-based approach local

regional national global

Thematic studies

systems approach physical systems human systems ecosystems

Table 2.4 Structures of geography curricula of different paradigms (Source: CGE, 1992)

In 1980s, a systems approach with regional studies was implemented. At

that time, concepts, skills and attitudes were emphasized in the syllabus, with the aim

that students could “broaden their knowledge of the world through identifying the

relationship between man and his living environment, and become aware of local,

regional and global issues” (Kwan, 1990, pp. 5-6). This stage however remained

content-oriented with the transmission of factual knowledge being the dominant

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specified in the syllabus were not taught (Speak, 1990).

An issues-based approach was introduced by the Curriculum Development

Council (CDC) in 1998. The approach aimed at “developing in students a

comprehensive view to understand the spatial context of people, places, and

environments and explain daily life experience as well as local, national and global

events” (CDC, 1998, pp 7). This brought both a fundamental shift in content from

disciplinary knowledge per se in an academic rationalist curriculum content to

knowledge that was argued to be socially relevant to young people in a

child-centered or socially transformative curriculum. It also brought a shift in the

learning approaches and strategies that were needed to develop a value laden socially

relevant content.

2.3.2 Approaches for a Socially Relevant Geography

Naish, Rawling and Hart (1987) view types of approach to teaching and learning as

below:

Figure 2.1 A continuum of teaching and learning approaches

INCREASING STUDENT AUTONOMY

Student learning activities

Teacher activities Reception learning Exposition and narration Problem-solving hypothesis-testing Open-ended

discovery Creative activity

Provides structure for enquiry and methods of investigation

Provides advice about structure and is available for consultation Offers encouragement and support, but no decision

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In this continuum, exposition, narration and reception learning involve a

low level of student autonomy, and by implication strong teacher control over the

taught curriculum. Along the continuum one open-ended discovery situations and

creative activity with a higher level of student autonomy. These open ended,

creative approaches are needed for learning values laden content as values cannot be

taught directly if they are to be learnt but most be built by the learner. Issues-based

enquiry is one such knowledge and values building approach.

Naish, Rawling and Hart (2002) summarize the characteristics of

issues-based enquiry as:

z identify issues, questions as the start points for enquiry;

z involve students as active participants in a sequence of meaningful learning

activities;

z provide opportunities for the development of a wide range of skills and abilities;

z present opportunities for open-ended enquiries in which attitudes and values

may be clarified, and ideas and opinions can be interchanged;

z provide scope for an effective balance of both teacher-directed and more

independent student activities;

z assist in the development of political literacy such that students gain

understanding of the social environment and know how to participate in it (p.

64).

Following the route for enquiry, students start from being aware of the

issue which are then be defined, described, analyzed, explained, evaluated, predicted

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response are present in this approach of learning and various higher-order thinking

skills are practiced as well as students self-learning techniques may acquire. A

route for enquiry defining it steps with a framework of key geographical questions:

what, where, why, how, what might is given in Figure 2.2.

2.3.3 The Issues-based Enquiry Approach in Teaching Geography

This approach shifts from an expository teacher-centered approach to an enquiry

student-centered approach. According to the CDC (1998), the issues-based

approach aims at “developing in students a comprehensive view to understand the

spatial context of people, places and environments and explain daily life experience

as well as local, national and global events” (p.7). Issues-based teachers focus on

acting “… as facilitators to help students or actually work together with students’

ways of using geographical information and ideas to handle geographical problems”

(Kwan, 1990, pp. 35-39). Teachers should know how to handle flexible ideas from

students in order to promote students’ creativity. Teachers also need to act as

“facilitators to select, arrange and present data for students, so that they have the

opportunity to work with the data to conceptualize and to appreciate how decisions

can sensibly be made” (Kwan, 1990, p.32). When the inquiry skills of the students

are developed, students are able to apply the skills in different areas or situations that

they may encounter in the future. In short, an issues-based approach puts emphasis

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Figure 2.2 Route for enquiry

The issues-based approach is based on the constructivist perspective of

teaching and learning. Students learn through construction of knowledge with

teachers as facilitators of learning. Several strategies are suggested by the

Curriculum Development Council (1998) in Hong Kong to enhance enquiry learning, Observation and perception (What?)

Definition and description (What? and Where?)

Analysis and explanation (How? and Why?)

Prediction and evaluation (What might? What will?

With what impact?)

Decision-making (What decision? With what impact?)

Personal evaluation and judgment (What do I think? Why?)

Personal response (What next? What shall I do?)

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and these strategies were summarized by Mark (2001, p. 21), they are:

z teachers as facilitators rather than knowledge transmitter;

z curriculum tailoring encouraged with reference to the school context;

z choice of issues as a matter of interest closely related to students’ daily life and

their interests;

z group learning strategy encouraged and

z assessment formative to link teaching and learning process objectives.

Nonetheless, the implementation of the issues-based approach is crucial

in meeting the objectives. Mark (2001) found that teachers are “confused as they

worry about the continuity of the curriculum and they have been overloaded by other

recently introduced educational innovations” (pp. 198-203).

2.4 Levels of Implementing Change

The attributes of change vary according to the uniqueness of context. According to

Hall and Hord (1987) and Rutherford, Hord, Huling and Hall (1983), the

characteristics of change are inconsistent for a number of reasons. Firstly, change is

a process and not an event, so time, energy and resources are needed to support it.

Secondly, change is achieved through the feeling of developmental growth about the

skills in using new curriculum. Thirdly, change is achieved by individual rather

than institution. Fourthly, change is a personal experience. Fifthly, change

assisted by agents which providing support to teachers. For these reasons

implementation of an innovation such as issues-based learning will vary. One

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2.4.1 The Concerns-based Adoption Model

The Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM) focuses on teachers. The model

tries to describe the extent that teachers to successfully implement a new curriculum

on an innovative way (Marsh & Willis, 2003). There are two important concepts in

CBAM: (1) the Stages of Concern (SoC) and (2) Levels of Use (LoU). The SoC

highlights the concerns of the teachers when a new curriculum implemented while

LoU underlines the actual implementation of the teachers.

Marsh and Willis (2003, p 254) note seven Stages of Concern of CBAM in

Table 2.5: 0 Awareness 1 Informational 2 Personal 3 Management 4 Consequence 5 Collaboration 6 Refocusing

Table 2.5 Stages of Concern

Teachers have no need to and do not necessarily pass through all six stages.

The rate and level reached vary from individual to individual and are determined by

the various teachers’ concern and intensity. For example the concern of some may

be more immediate and more intense than others (Marsh, 1990).

However, the Levels of Use of CBAM suggests that teacher’s progress

through these levels with an increasing familiarity of the new curriculum in Table 2.6

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Levels of use Definition

0 Non-use Little or no knowledge, no involvement with the innovation

I Orientation Acquiring information about the innovation

II Preparation Preparing for the first use of the innovation

III Mechanical use Focusing on short-term use of innovation, no reflection

IV A Routine Stable use of innovation

IV B Refinement Use of innovation to increase the impact on students

V Integration Use of innovation collaboratively

VI Renewal Seeking modifications or alternatives of innovation Table 2.6 Levels of use of an innovation (Source: Hall and Hord, 1987)

Some assistance can given to the teacher if knowing what levels of the teacher

obtained. As a result, higher level can be reach and the curriculum implementation

move towards a correct direction. The level that is apparent at a particular point in

time is the result of a number of contextual factors that are discussed in the next

section.

2.5 Factors Affecting Implementation

Fullan (1999) and Scott (1999) argue that a well-designed curriculum must be

implemented well if it is to have positive impact on students. Implementation is the

crucial aspect and refers to the actual use of a curriculum or syllabus or what it

consists of in practice (Fullan & Pomfret, 1977). It has to take account of an

“attitudinal” element “attitudinal dispositions” of the teachers and principals towards

the change are essential since they are selectors of different curriculum packages

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2.5.1 Factors Affecting the Degree of Implementation

Various researchers have focused on different factors affecting curriculum

implementation.

Print (1993) summarized the factors as:

1. strategies for enhancing changes;

2. characteristics of the innovation;

3. internal nature of the organization; and

4. characteristics of the broader social context.

Parsons (1987) is more specific and suggests the following to promote successful

implementation practices:

1. Time

2. A technology for change

3. Recognizing school culture

4. Provision of incentives and rewards

5. Sharing of the burden in the workplace

6. Releasing energy for innovation

7. A collaborative framework

8. Leadership

9. Recognizing system-level culture

10.A political perspective

11.Winning allies

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Other researches have categorized factors into various aspects or analysis

the perspectives. For example, House (1979) uses three perspectives to analyze the

successful implementation of practices, namely, technical, political and cultural. A

technical perspective assumes systematic planning and rational approach to solve the

problems which teachers may encounter, such as enough time for the curriculum

change and examines implementation from this viewpoint. In a political

perspective are examined the balance of power between different parties concerned

with the curriculum change. A cultural perspective focuses on the cultural

transformation of the curriculum where the beliefs and values of various stakeholders

in the curriculum affect the curriculum and determine the level of success.

Bargaining and transformation (McLaughlin, 1987) among stakeholders is a

centered concern recognizing that there are “facilitators” who drive implementation

success and “obstacles” which lower the level of curriculum implementation.

Fullan (1985) summarized there as in Table 2.7. Such elements influence its level

of implementation.

Facilitators Obstacles

1. System commitment and preoccupation with curriculum

1. Teacher capacity, overload

2. Director’s commitment 2. Principal’s lack of leadership 3. Widely understood, sound and practical

procedures

3. Financial resources

4. Leadership at central level 4. Additional demands 5. Increased leadership by principals 5. Complexity of the model 6. Open climate, high expectations, high

recognition

6. Role of school board and turnover

7. Healthy curriculum budget 8. Selective use of external budget

9. Persistence and cumulative development

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Fullan (1982) listed factors affecting implementation according to their

characteristics and noted that with respect to:

z the change: need for and relevance of the change; clarity; complexity; quality

and practicality of programme;

z the school district level: the history of innovative attempts; the adoption process;

central administrative support and involvement; staff development (in-service)

and participation; time-line and information system (evaluation); board and

community characteristics;

z the school level: the principal; teacher-teacher relations; teacher characteristics

and orientations;

z external to the local system: role of government; external assistance.

He modified and organized the key factors of curriculum implementation

into three groups, namely, the characteristics of the change, local roles and external

factors. Figure 2.3 shows the interactive factors affecting implementation. Fullan

(2001) provides a framework showing the interaction of different factors which is

insightful for further development.

Figure 2.3 Interactive Factors Affecting Implementation (Source: Fullan, 2001, p.72)

Characteristics of Change z Need z Clarity z Complexity z Quality / practicality Local Characteristics z District z Community z Principal z Teacher External Factors

z Government and other agencies Implementation

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2.6 Chapter Summary

The main points of significance for the present study are:

z the issues-based approach teaching and learning are derived from two models of

teaching, namely, the Inquiry Training model in the information-processing

family and the Social Science Inquiry approach of the social family (Joyce &

Weil, 2004), which have some similarities among them;

z there are some researchers focused on the issues-based approach of teaching and

learning, for instance, Stimpson and Tao (1994) and Marsden (1995) provide a

thorough understanding of the nature of the approach;

z the geographical education in Hong Kong urged a change from a regional,

content-oriented to a issue, skill based approach of learning and teaching since

1960s;

z Kwan (1990) and Mark (2001) investigated the issues-based approach carried

out in Hong Kong since 1998, the document of the Curriculum Development

Council (1998) provide guidelines for schools and teachers to apply the

issues-based approach;

z the levels of implementing the change are different, Hall and Hord (1987) and

Rutherford, Hord, Huling and Hall (1983) argued for several reasons;

z Marsh and Willies (2003) derived the Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM)

which tries to describe the extent that teachers to successfully implement a new

curriculum;

z there are different factors affecting the implementation of a new curriculum,

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Chapter 3 Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This chapter explains the research design adopted and justifies the methods of data

collection to seek answers to the research questions stated in Chapter 1, namely:

z What is the understanding of issues-based teaching of the teachers?

z What is the extent of implementing issues-based teaching?

z What are the reasons for the different levels of implementation in teaching?

The Chapter is in three parts:

1. a discussion of the nature of collective case study approach;

2. a review of observational methods and the way this was carried out in the study;

and

3. a review of interview methods and the way this was carried out in the study.

3.2 Collective Case Study Approach

This study used the collective, or multiple case study approach to carry out data

collection. Similar to all kinds of research methodologies, collective case study has

advantages and disadvantages (3.2.1). These are now discussed and the steps used

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3.2.1 Nature of Case Study

Case study refers to the ‘collection and presentation of detailed, relatively

unstructured information from a range of sources about a particular individual, group

or institution, usually including the accounts of subjects themselves’ (Hammersley,

1989, pp. 92-3). It can provide ‘a unique example of real people in real situations,

enabling readers to understand ideas more clearly than simply by presenting them

with abstract theories or principles’ (Cohen, et al., 2003, p. 181).

Mertler and Charles (2005) listed three purposes of case study. Firstly,

case studies are used to provide vivid descriptions of a particular person or instance.

Secondly, case studies provide explanations of that particular person or instance

since and why the situation is or why the person behaves as observed. Thirdly, case

studies are to evaluate programs, individuals and settings and identify the strengths

and shortcomings in order to suggest modifications for improvement and to match

with intention as much as possible.

A case is defined as a bounded system. Johnson and Christensen (2004)

define such a ‘system is as a set of interrelated elements that form an organized

whole’, within the system cases are seen as ‘holistic entities that have parts and that

act or operate in their environments’ (p. 376). The idea of being bounded

emphasizes that the researcher identifies the outline or boundaries of the system, that

is, the researchers determine what the case is and what it is not included. Hitchcock

and Hughes (1997) argue that “it is useful to try to identify diagramatically the

boundaries of the case, that means break the case down into ‘key players’, ‘key

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in the life of the case itself” (p. 318). Researchers with a focus on bounded systems

interested in deep holistic description of the particular in its natural settings and

viewed each case as having an internal and external context (Johnson and

Christensen, 2004, Denscombe, 1998). Contexts of the case are carefully examined

in order to have better descriptions and explanations. Table 3.1 summarizes the

characteristics of case study researches by comparing the different elements. The

emphasis is holistic and naturalistic rather than reductionist.

z depth of study z the particular z relationships / processes z holistic view z natural settings z multiple sources

Rather than

z breadth of study z the general

z outcomes and end-products

z isolated factors

z artificial situations

z one research method

Table 3.1 Characteristics of case study researches (Source: Denscombe, 1998, p.32)

Since classification of case study have been made. Then of Yin (1984),

Merriam (1988) and Stake (1994) are now described and their relevant to present

study articulated.

In parallel with Mertler and Charles (2005), Yin (1984) identifies three

distinct types of case study in terms of their end products, namely, exploratory,

descriptive and explanatory case studies. Exploratory case studies can be used as

pilots in its early stage of the research. Descriptive case studies seek to provide a

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use to generate new theory or test an existing one. This study largely use a

descriptive case study.

Merriam (1988) considered the use of case study within educational

research and recognized four kinds of case studies on the basic of perspective:

ethnography case study, the historical case study, the psychological case study and

the sociological case study. This study has what might be seen as a society focus.

Stake (1994) distinguishes three types of case studies, namely, intrinsic

case studies, instrumental case studies and collective case studies. Researcher using

the intrinsic case study is interested in knowing a specific case. It is usually a

classic and single-case design research. The objectives of the intrinsic case study

are to understand the case as a holistic entity and its inner workings. The

researchers have the advantages of putting all their time and resources into the study

of a single case and in-depth understanding is possible. However, as Johnson and

Christensen (2004) point out there is the risk to generalizing phenomena from such a

single case study. The instrumental case study is used ‘when the researcher

examines a particular case to gain insight into a certain issue or theory’ (Stake, 1994,

pp. 237-8). The researchers are less interested in making conclusions that apply

beyond a specific case but interested in how and why a phenomenon works out.

Explanation is a key goal of this kind of research. Sometimes, the case is selected

because it is extreme or unique in certain extend (Johnson and Christensen, 2004).

The collective case study which was adopted in the research involves ‘the

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feel that a research can obtain greater insight by concurrently studying multiple cases

in one research; it also called multiple-case design. There are several advantages of

the collective case study. Firstly, a ‘comparative type of study can be conducted in

which several cases are compared for similarities and differences; secondly, one can

more effectively test a theory by observing the results of multiple cases than from a

single case’ (Johnson and Christensen, 2004, p. 378). In other words, we are more

confidence in a finding or result occurs when it has been replicated for many times.

Thus it may be argued that the research uses a descriptive, social, collective case

study approach.

Case studies have several claimed advantages, strengths and weaknesses,

Adelman et al. (1980) and Nisbet and Watt (1984) have summarized some of them in

Tables as shown in 3.2 and 3.3.

Advantages: Case studies are:

1. strong in ‘reality’, down-to-earth and attention-holding in harmony with the reader’s own experience, so, provide a natural basis for generalization;

2. allow generalization about an instance and lie in attention to the subtlety and complexity of the case in its own right;

3. recognize the complexity and embeddedness’ of social truths;

4. consider as products and may form an archive of descriptive material to admit subsequent reinterpretation;

5. a step to action in educational policy making;

6. present research or evaluation data in a more publicly accessible form, capable of serving multiple audiences, contribute towards the democratization of decision-making and knowledge itself and allow readers to judge the implications of a study for themselves.

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Adelman et al. (1980) revealed that case study approach of a research has

various advantages. Since the case study is collected from real cases, this source of

data collection provide a suitable basis to generalize the real world situations. It

also reflects certain extent of the complexity of the case which is really happened.

Moreover, case study is a step for policy making and evaluating data for the public

and society to reach.

Strengths:

1. The results are more easily understood by a wide audience.

2. They are immediately intelligible.

3. They catch unique features and hold the key to understand the situation.

4. They are strong on reality.

5. They provide insights into other similar situations and cases.

6. They can be undertaken by a single researcher.

7. They can embrace and build in unanticipated events and uncontrolled variables.

Weaknesses:

1. The results may not be generalizable.

2. They are not easily open to cross-checking, hence they may be selective, biased

personal and subjective.

3. They are prone to problems of observer bias, despite attempts made to address

reflexivity

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Nisbet and Watt (1984) listed in Table 3.3 above that case study has certain

strengths and weaknesses. The strengths can look together with Adelman et al’s

(1980) advantages, case study is reflecting in reality. Besides, the case study is

easily to be understood by different audience who needed the data, some unique and

special characteristics are highlighted, so, some insightful ideas are provided for

similar cases. Case study research is capable of carrying out by one researcher

which is wants to save human input.

For the weaknesses, case study may not able to draw generalization since it

is a unique case. There are some problems emerged including the cross-checking

and bias from the researcher.

3.2.2 Research Design

Case studies are the “preferred strategy when ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions are being

posed” (Hitchcock & Hughes, 1997, p. 322). Mertler and Charles (2005) indicated

the steps to conduct and organize a case study in Table 3.4.

1. State clearly the purpose of the study.

2. Select the case.

3. Obtain the access to the case and the site.

4. Begin the research and data collection.

5. Analysis the data.

6. List the findings and make interpretations.

7. State the conclusions

Table 3.4 Steps to organize and conduct a case study research (Adopted from Mertler & Charles, 2005, pp. 292-3)

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Two research paradigms are suggested, the quantitative and qualitative

research methodology, although the latter dominate case study research. While

‘quantitative methodology has come to be characterized by the techniques of random

assignment, treatment contrasts, experimental control, objective tests, statistical

analyses and so on (Anderson and Burns 1989), qualitative methodology has been

primarily associated with case studies, ethnographic description, interviews and

long-term observation, and the discovery of meaning in social phenomena” (pp.

46-7). In the study as noted a qualitative perspective was used.

Qualitative research includes human elements to a larger extent. In

contrast, quantitative research uses a ‘more scientific and rational in providing

statistical evidence to test the hypothesis’ (Mark, 2001, p.93). However, as Wallen

(1989) argues which ever is used they ‘must be justified; both need evidence of

reliable and valid instrumentation; both must simplify information to make sense of

it; both must try to explain and interpret their findings’ (p.9).

3.2.3 Selection of Cases

The qualitative collective case study used three cases where the analysis was the

school selection of cases was by abilities, banding. This study hypothesized

differences in implementation by the ability level of students. The first school is a

Band One secondary school with English as the Medium of Instruction (EMI) in a

low income working class area of Hong Kong. It is a subsidized girl school with

over 90 per cent Band One students. There are five classes from Secondary 1 to 5

and two classes of Secondary 6 and 7. There are three arts classes and two science

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The second school (B) is a Band Two secondary school with Chinese as

the Medium of Instruction (CMI) but EMI in certificate levels (Secondary 4 and 5) in

a low and middle income area in Hong Kong. It is a subsidized boy school which

over 98 per cent students are from Band Two. There are four classes from

Secondary 1 to 5 and two classes of Secondary 6 and 7. There are three science

classes and two arts classes in Secondary 4 and 5. Altogether there are 24 classes in

School A.

The third school (C) is a Band Three secondary school with Chinese as

the Medium of Instruction (CMI) until certificate levels in a low income working

class area in Hong Kong. It is a subsidized co-education school which over 90 per

cent students are from Band Three. There are five classes from Secondary 1 to 5

and two classes of Secondary 6 and 7. There are three science classes and two arts

classes in Secondary 4 and 5. So, altogether there are 29 classes in School C.

There are similar backgrounds of the three schools that they are all

Catholic subsidized secondary schools which located in low to middle working class

areas in Hong Kong.

Three schools are chosen from different bandings, thus, the schools reflect

a comprehensive range of students of different learning abilities. Schools are

divided into three bandings according to the learning abilities of the majority of the

student intake. It is no doubt that cases from these three bandings provide a better

explanations of the situations encountered by schools with similar bandings and

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The researcher is familiar with the backgrounds of the schools and the

geography teachers being selected. There are comparative advantages to have a

thorough understanding of the situation of the school with the relationship.

Moreover, the teachers are more honest to provide sufficient information and details

of the schools since the researcher knows some of the realities of the school and the

problems which the teachers may encounter. The follow-up actions and latest and

most updated information are ensured since the researcher and the teachers chosen

are closely and frequently contacted. The validity and reliability of the study may

be promoted. According to Marshall and Rossman (1999), these schools are

‘realistic site’ since good relationships between the researcher and the staff ensured,

the followings are assured:

z entry;

z probability that a rich mix of the processes, people, programs, interactions and

structures of interest are present;

z mutual trust between the writer and key players in the process in the schools;

and

z quality and creditability of data collected from the schools (adopted from Mark,

2001).

3.3 Data Collection

The aim of the study is to find and how the three schools implementing issues-based

teaching. The concern is with what went on a practice and why. For this

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The observation of the lessons is used as a cross checking method together

with the interviews. The real practice within the classroom may or may not reflect

the beliefs of the teachers. Sometimes, the teachers may do or not do certain things

with the influences of several factors. As a result, interviews with deeper

understanding and observations with evidences are carried together in this research.

3.4 Observation

By using observation, the researcher ‘is given the opportunity to look at what is

taking place in situ rather than at second hand’ (Patton, 1990, pp.203-5). Wright

(1967) defined observation as ‘any behaviour, interaction, or activity that occurs

within the perceptual field of the observer while in the classroom and captures his or

her attention’ (p.12). Figrue 3.1 concerning whether observers are expected to

concentrate on specific types or categories of events. The two approaches on the

horizontal dimension are structured observation systems. Medley (1982) defined a

structured observation system as a ‘scheme that specifies both the events that the

observer is to record and the procedure to be used in recording them’ (p. 1842).

Figure 3.1 Two dimensions on which approaches to observation can be differentiated (Source: Anderson and Burns, 1989, p.135)

Observer as ‘detached recorder’ Predetermined events to be observed Events to be observed to be determined Observer as ‘involved interpreter’

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3.4.1 Nature of Observation

‘Observation in ethnographic research is continuing, total and unstructured’

(Wiersma, 1995, pp.260-262).

Similar to all research methodologies, observation has its own advantages

and disadvantages. Observation enables researcher ‘to understand the context of

programmes, to be open-ended and inductive, to see things that might otherwise be

unconsciously missed, to discover things that participants might not be freely talk

about in interview situations, to move beyond perception-based data and to access

personal knowledge’ (Marshall & Rossman, 1989, p. 305). Anderson and Burns

(1989) stated that observation permits researchers to study the process of education

since it unfolds in the classroom. Moreover, observation provides more detailed

and precise evidence than other data sources. In addition, it can be useful in

stimulating change and verifying that the desired change has really occurred.

Observation permits the researchers to collect information and data on the

following aspects:

z the physical setting (such as the physical environment and organization);

z the human setting (such as the characteristics and make up of groups or

individuals);

z the interactional setting (such as the interactions are formal or informal, planned

or unplanned); and

z the programme setting (such as the resources and the pedagogic styles)

(Morrison, 1993, p. 80).

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situation that needed to be investigated.

There are also some disadvantages of using observation as a data

collection method. Firstly, the labour cost spent on observation since it is

labour-intensive and time consuming. In other words, the time and money inputs

are very high. Secondly, some misunderstandings during the observation are

probably unavoidable. This is because bias and unintentional misinterpretation may

appear during observations.

3.4.2 Observation in Practice

Non-participant observations was conduct. The observer filled in the classroom

observation record (refer to Appendix I) during and after each observation.

Observation of lessons was carried out by the interviewer, this act as a check for the

information gather from the interview. ‘Combined with observation, interviews

allow the researcher to check description against facts’ (Marshall & Rossman, 1989,

p.82). As a result, observations together with interviews were carried out in the

research.

It is important to use field notes and checklists during observations. This

is because loss of information and distortion of observation will be happened. So,

immediate actions during the observation ensure the minimization of data loss. The

records from the observations will be use for analysis later.

3.4.3 Analysis of Observation Data

Implementation of the issues-based approach in teaching certificate geography

ABSTRACT

Implementation of the

Issues-based Approach

in Teaching

Certificate Geography

By

Kwan Kin Sheung

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Education

at the University of Hong Kong

August 2005

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

1.2 Issues-based Teaching in Geographical Education in Hong Kong

1.3 Research Objectives and Questions

1.4 Scope and Conceptual Framework

1.5 Significance of the Study

1.6 Structure of the Dissertation

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Issues-based Teaching and Learning

2.3 Geographical Education and an Issues-based Approach

2.4 Levels of Implementing Change

2.5 Factors Affecting Implementation

2.6 Chapter Summary

Chapter 3

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Collective Case Study Approach

Rather than

3.3

Data Collection

3.4

Observation