The Absent Presence: Discourses of The Absent Presence: Discourses of Crypto-Colonialism
Crypto-Colonialism
T
T
he disciplines of social and cultural anthro-he disciplines of social and cultural anthro-popolology gy ememerergeged d frfrom om ththe e fefermrmenent t of of WWesestt European world domination as instrument and European world domination as instrument and expression of the colonial project. Although it expression of the colonial project. Although it subsequently turned against the practices and subsequently turned against the practices and id
ideoleology ogy of of cocololoninialalismism, , it it reremamainins s ststrorongnglyly marked by that historical entailment. Among marked by that historical entailment. Among the many effects
the many effects of colonialism on anthropology,of colonialism on anthropology, one in particular stands out: the fact that much one in particular stands out: the fact that much of the discipline’s theoretical capital is palpably of the discipline’s theoretical capital is palpably derived from ethnographic research done in the derived from ethnographic research done in the colonial dominions.
colonial dominions.
The Discourse of Humanity: The Discourse of Humanity: Echoes from the Crypto-Colonies Echoes from the Crypto-Colonies
While anthropology lays claim to global While anthropology lays claim to global rele-vance, cultural groups that were never directly vance, cultural groups that were never directly controlled by those colonial powers from which controlled by those colonial powers from which anthropology itself emanated (including anthropology itself emanated (including coun-tries, such as the United States, that practiced an tries, such as the United States, that practiced an internal form of imperial dominion) often seem internal form of imperial dominion) often seem suggestively marginal to the predominant forms suggestively marginal to the predominant forms of scholarly discourse.
of scholarly discourse. Wi
Withthin in ththis is brbroaoad d spespectctrurum m of of exexcluclusiosion,n,
The
TheSouth Atlantic QuarterlySouth Atlantic Quarterly:, Fall .:, Fall . Copyright © by
anthropology displays two major, closely intertwined absences—one anthropology displays two major, closely intertwined absences—one con-spicuous, the other furtive—from its theoretical canon. The conspicuous spicuous, the other furtive—from its theoretical canon. The conspicuous absence is that of modern Greece, the reasons rooted in the special kind absence is that of modern Greece, the reasons rooted in the special kind of political marginality that has marked Greece’s relations with the West of political marginality that has marked Greece’s relations with the West throughout most of its history as a nominally independent though throughout most of its history as a nominally independent though practi-cally tributary nation-state.
cally tributary nation-state. While it is true that thWhile it is true that the extensive production of e extensive production of eth
ethnonogrgrapaphihicc momononogrgrapaphshs ababououtt prpresesenent-dt-dayay GrGreeceecee hahass dodonene mumuchch toto rerec- c-tify the situation in recent years, it is only rarely that one encounters the tify the situation in recent years, it is only rarely that one encounters the country in, for example, introductory social and cultural anthro
country in, for example, introductory social and cultural anthropology tepology text- xt-books—those photo-negative images of Western civilization introductory books—those photo-negative images of Western civilization introductory primers.
primers.
The furtive absence is that of the classical Greek culture. It is furtive The furtive absence is that of the classical Greek culture. It is furtive bec
becauausese itit shshelelterterss behbehinindd ththee mumultiltifafaririououss sisigngnss ofof aa prpreseesencnce,e, whwhichich memeltltss into insignificance as soon as we attempt to grasp and identify it. Much is into insignificance as soon as we attempt to grasp and identify it. Much is made of the roots
made of the roots of anthropology in Herodotean curiosity of anthropology in Herodotean curiosity and in Attic phi-and in Attic phi-losophy
losophy, but it is of a prohibitively generic cha, but it is of a prohibitively generic character.racter. There seems to be sur-There seems to be sur-prisingly little that one could say with any confidence about the practical prisingly little that one could say with any confidence about the practical sig
signinificficanancece ofof ananciecientnt GrGreeceecee inin ththee ininteltellelectuctualal gegenenealalogyogy ofof ananththroropopolog logi-i-cal thought, despite a plethora of both casual allusions to, and specialized cal thought, despite a plethora of both casual allusions to, and specialized invocations of, a hypostatized classical past.
invocations of, a hypostatized classical past.
These twin absences spring from a common source in the construction These twin absences spring from a common source in the construction of a discursive and geographical space called Greece. Greece
of a discursive and geographical space called Greece. Greece tout courttout court isis almost always automatically assumed to be
almost always automatically assumed to be ancientancient Greece; the modernGreece; the modern country, even in its own travel brochures, yields to the commanding country, even in its own travel brochures, yields to the commanding pres-ence of a high antiquity created in the crucible of late-eighteenth-century ence of a high antiquity created in the crucible of late-eighteenth-century Aryanism—that same tradition of cultural eugenics that bred the Nazis’ Aryanism—that same tradition of cultural eugenics that bred the Nazis’ ‘‘race science’’ and, at least in one controversial but persuasive ‘‘race science’’ and, at least in one controversial but persuasive historio-graphic reading, occluded both Semitic and Egyptian (‘‘African’’) graphic reading, occluded both Semitic and Egyptian (‘‘African’’) contribu-tions to European culture.
tions to European culture.11
Although the German philologists and art historians who generated the Although the German philologists and art historians who generated the neoclassical model of Greek (and more generally European) culture were neoclassical model of Greek (and more generally European) culture were not themselves military
not themselves military colonizers, they were doing thcolonizers, they were doing the ideological work of e ideological work of the project of European world hegemo
the project of European world hegemony.ny.While much recent literature hasWhile much recent literature has bee
beenn dedevovotetedd toto ththee ananalalysysisis ofof ththatat prprojojecectt inin ththee foformrm ofof cocololoninialalisism,m, II wawantnt hhereree toto ininititiaiatete didiscscusussisionon ooff aa raraththerer spspececifiificc vavaririetyety—o—orr peperhrhaapsps itit isis anan off off--shoot—of that phenomenon
shoot—of that phenomenon. I s. I shall call hall call ititcrypto-colonialismcrypto-colonialism and define it asand define it as the curious alchemy whereby certain countries, buffer zones between the the curious alchemy whereby certain countries, buffer zones between the colonized lands and those as yet untamed, were compelled to acquire their colonized lands and those as yet untamed, were compelled to acquire their
politicalindependenceattheexpenseofmassiveeconomicdependence,this politicalindependenceattheexpenseofmassiveeconomicdependence,this relationship being articulated in the iconic guise of aggressively national relationship being articulated in the iconic guise of aggressively national cu
cultltururee fafashshioionenedd toto susuitit foforereigignn momodedelsls.. SuSuchch cocoununtrtriesies wewerere anandd araree lilivinvingg paradoxes: they are nominally independent, but that independence comes paradoxes: they are nominally independent, but that independence comes at the price of a sometimes humiliating form of effective dependence. at the price of a sometimes humiliating form of effective dependence.
T
Two such countries are Greece and Thailand.wo such countries are Greece and Thailand. There are many more, anThere are many more, andd th
thee vavaririetyety amamonongg ththemem—w—wheherere,, foforr exaexampmplele,, shshououldld wewe plplacacee susuchch didiveversrsee entities as the former Yugoslavia, Japan, or Mexico?—and further entities as the former Yugoslavia, Japan, or Mexico?—and further explo-ration is likely to undercut the category of
ration is likely to undercut the category of crypto-coloniescrypto-colonies, producing still, producing still finer discriminations. Nevertheless, these two cases, while geographically finer discriminations. Nevertheless, these two cases, while geographically fa
farr apapartart anandd sesepapararatedted byby rereliligiogionn anandd lalangnguauagege,, didispsplalayy sosomeme cocommmmonon ele- ele-ments that at least should serve
ments that at least should serve to open up discussion. I mostly confine myto open up discussion. I mostly confine my remar
remarks here to ks here to Greece, but the Thai Greece, but the Thai case will case will be useful—be useful—albeit in neces-albeit in neces-sar
sarilyily sketsketchychy forform—fm—foror begibeginnnniningg ththee proprocescesss ofof comcompliplicatcatinging ththee catecategorygory of
of crypto-colonialismcrypto-colonialism at its very point of genesis.at its very point of genesis.
The strategy of building instability into the model right from the start The strategy of building instability into the model right from the start in this way is entirely deliberate. It would be a strange irony were we, in in this way is entirely deliberate. It would be a strange irony were we, in an effort to transcend the binarism of colonizers and colonized, to an effort to transcend the binarism of colonizers and colonized, to gener-ate instead a tripartite taxonomy that was no less impervious to the hugely ate instead a tripartite taxonomy that was no less impervious to the hugely di
diverversese comcomplexplexitieitiess of of localocall expeexperieriencence.. GreeGreecece offoffersers aa fufurthrtherer proprovocavocatiotionn th
thatat wilwilll hehelplp ininmamainintatainininingg awawararenenesesss ofofsusuchch cocompmplexlexitiitieses,, foforr ththee cocoununtrytry has a unique historical relationship with anthropology: it is assumed to be has a unique historical relationship with anthropology: it is assumed to be the intellectual and spiritual birthplace of the Western cultures that the intellectual and spiritual birthplace of the Western cultures that gener-ated the discipline,
ated the discipline, and its relative absence from the anthropological canonand its relative absence from the anthropological canon of theory is for that reason all the more striking. Thailand in this sense is of theory is for that reason all the more striking. Thailand in this sense is more like so
more like so many other countries that happen not many other countries that happen not to have spawned majorto have spawned major theoretical traditions by bec
theoretical traditions by becoming paradigm cases, although both Thailandoming paradigm cases, although both Thailand and Greece have been sites of important ethnographic research and and Greece have been sites of important ethnographic research and con-siderable theoretical elaboration. But the Thai case provides n especially siderable theoretical elaboration. But the Thai case provides n especially useful foil here to that of Greece precisely
useful foil here to that of Greece precisely because of the remarkable paral-because of the remarkable paral-lels that appear to subs
lels that appear to subsist between the two countriesist between the two countries.. While some of theseWhile some of these similarities do undoubtedly derive from the radiating fal
similarities do undoubtedly derive from the radiating fallout from colonial-lout from colonial-ism
ism,, ththee hihiststororicicalal spespecificificitcitieiess ofof ththee twtwoo cacasesses—i—incncluludidingng ththeieirr veveryry didiffeffer- r-ent relationships with the emergence o
ent relationships with the emergence of the humaf the human sciences in then sciences in the WWest—est— will not permit any such
will not permit any such simplistic closure.simplistic closure. Other countries prodOther countries produce otheruce other variations on this
variations on this theme of exclusion theme of exclusion from the theoretical from the theoretical canon: Jcanon: Japan, forapan, for example, hardly a weak player in world politics and economics (and a example, hardly a weak player in world politics and economics (and a con-siderable imperial power in its own right not very long ago), nevertheless siderable imperial power in its own right not very long ago), nevertheless
exhi
exhibitbitss certacertainin feafeaturtureses ofof crypto-cocrypto-colonlonialial stastatustus,, incincludludiningg itsits comcomparparatiativeve ir
irrerelelevavancncee toto ththee prprododucuctiotionn ofof ththeoeoryry inin ththee WWestest..22YYetet perhperhapapss ononee feafeaturturee
that all these countries share is the aggressive promotion of their claims to that all these countries share is the aggressive promotion of their claims to civilizational superiority
civilizational superiority or antiquityor antiquity, claims that almost always appear dis, claims that almost always appear dis--propo
proportionartionate te to their political influenceto their political influence. One begins . One begins to suspect to suspect that theythat they ha
haveve bebeenen plplaaceced,d, oror plplacacee ththememseselvlveses,, onon hihighgh cucultltururalal pepededeststalalss ththatat effeffec- ec-tively isolate them from other, more brutally material forms of power, and tively isolate them from other, more brutally material forms of power, and that this ironic predicament is the defining feature of crypto-colonialism. that this ironic predicament is the defining feature of crypto-colonialism.
In suggesting that comparisons of this sort can be helpful, I am also In suggesting that comparisons of this sort can be helpful, I am also exte
extendndiningg anan arargugumementnt II hahaveve alalrereadadyy mamadede ababououtt ththee rerelalatiotionsnshihipp betbetweeweenn Greece and social-cultural anthropology: that both were products of the Greece and social-cultural anthropology: that both were products of the colon
colonialist venture, being ialist venture, being respectirespectively a vely a physiphysical cal locatiolocation n and a and a discoudiscourserse through which the moral segreg
through which the moral segregation of theation of the WWest from the rest of the worldest from the rest of the world was effected.
was effected.33 Moreover, both Greek cultural politics and anthropologi-Moreover, both Greek cultural politics and
anthropologi-cal theory exhibit a progressive rejection of these presumptions over the cal theory exhibit a progressive rejection of these presumptions over the past several decades. Local discourses about the nature of culture, past several decades. Local discourses about the nature of culture, civiliza-tion, and identity thus become immediately and interestingly comparable tion, and identity thus become immediately and interestingly comparable to anthropological writings, on which such discourses often draw directly. to anthropological writings, on which such discourses often draw directly. Greece is certainly not the only country in which elites cultivated among Greece is certainly not the only country in which elites cultivated among th
thee cicititizezenrynry aa dedeepep fefearar oof f bebecocomiminngg totooo clclososelelyy ididenentitifiefiedd wiwithth sosomeme vavaguguee category of barbarians. But as the alleged inventor of the term
category of barbarians. But as the alleged inventor of the term barbarianbarbarian itself, and as the
itself, and as the alleged ancestor of the modern alleged ancestor of the modern exponents of exponents of ‘‘‘‘civilization,’civilization,’’’ it serves as an intriguing locus of such concerns, particularly given the it serves as an intriguing locus of such concerns, particularly given the de
degrgreeee toto whwhicichh itit hahass bebeenen aa mamarrgiginanall anandd susubobordrdininatatee plplayayerer inin ththee vavaririououss projects of European cultural politics.
projects of European cultural politics.
If Thailand, like Greece, holds a mirror to Western anthropological If Thailand, like Greece, holds a mirror to Western anthropological models, it is in some respects of a different sort. Here, we are looking at models, it is in some respects of a different sort. Here, we are looking at a country that has long been regarded in the West as possessing a a country that has long been regarded in the West as possessing a distinc-tive culture. But that image is partly the outcome of some careful tive culture. But that image is partly the outcome of some careful impres-sion management at the level of state-supported institutions, responding sion management at the level of state-supported institutions, responding to perceived threats from the ever-colonizing West (especially in the form to perceived threats from the ever-colonizing West (especially in the form of Britain
of Britain and France—two majoand France—two major sites r sites of anthropological emergence). Forof anthropological emergence). For many in the West, Greece represents the first flowering of Indo-European many in the West, Greece represents the first flowering of Indo-European la
lannguguagagee anandd cucultltururee oonn EuEuroropepeanan sosoilil frfromom roroototss trtracaceded toto ththee SaSansnskrkritit trtra- a-di
ditiotionsns of Iof Indndiaia bubutt nonoww deedeeplplyy dodomemestisticacatedted asas WWesestertern.n. IInn ThaThailailandnd,, hohow- w-ever
ever,, desdespitepite ththee arrarrivaivall ofof SanSanskrskritit anandd BrBrahmahmananismism mamanyny cencenturturiesies earearlierlier,, the colonial powers threatened the independence of a Siam they the colonial powers threatened the independence of a Siam they encoun-tered as a site of racial difference. Thus, the uses to which Greek and Thai tered as a site of racial difference. Thus, the uses to which Greek and Thai
scholars, respectively, could put the evidence of an ancient, partially scholars, respectively, could put the evidence of an ancient, partially Indo-European heritage was not th
European heritage was not the same, because it e same, because it did not have the same rela-did not have the same rela-tionship to the
tionship to the ‘‘‘‘Aryanist’’ project of Aryanist’’ project of European global domination.European global domination.
My concern here is with the curious paradox of Greece, at once the My concern here is with the curious paradox of Greece, at once the col-lective spiritual ancestor and a political pariah in today’s ‘‘fast-capitalist’’ lective spiritual ancestor and a political pariah in today’s ‘‘fast-capitalist’’ Europe,
Europe,44 and with the uses to which internal elites put civilizational dis-and with the uses to which internal elites put civilizational
dis-courses to enhance their own power, at the cost of accepting the courses to enhance their own power, at the cost of accepting the collec-tive subjugatio
tive subjugation of their country to a global cultural hn of their country to a global cultural hierarchy.ierarchy. While suchWhile such processes have been well documented for colonies in the strict sense of processes have been well documented for colonies in the strict sense of the term—In
the term—India is an especialdia is an especially dramatic and well-documented casely dramatic and well-documented case55—the—the
mo
modedell ofof crypcrypto-cto-cololononiaialislismm susuggeggeststss ththatat ththisis hihiererararchchyy wawass nonott coconfinfinenedd toto th
thee cocololoninieses ththememseselvlveses.. ThThee ThThaiai cacasese isis susuggeggestistiveve,, momoreoreoveverr,, nonott becbecauausese it
it mimirrrrororss ththee GrGreekeek sisitutuatiationon exexacactltlyy,, bubutt becbecauausese ththee sisimimilalariritietiess ththesesee twtwoo coun
countries present do tries present do suggest that there may suggest that there may be be some common elementsome common elements,s, deriving from partially common experiences, in the ways in which deriving from partially common experiences, in the ways in which crypto-colonies respond to that hierarchy by deploying a world-dominating colonies respond to that hierarchy by deploying a world-dominating dis-course about ‘‘culture’’ in defense of their perceived national interests and course about ‘‘culture’’ in defense of their perceived national interests and specificity.Theyappeartoresistdomination,butdosoatthecostofeffective specificity.Theyappeartoresistdomination,butdosoatthecostofeffective complicity—amodelthatmorecloselyapproachestheGramsciandefinition complicity—amodelthatmorecloselyapproachestheGramsciandefinition of
of hehegemgemononyy thathann dodomomorere recrecentent anandd concontrotroverversiasiall nonotiotionsns ofof ‘‘‘‘resresistaistancence..’’’’66
The striking paradox of the Greek case makes it both exemplary of these The striking paradox of the Greek case makes it both exemplary of these processes and yet also eccentric. Reminding ourselves of suggestive processes and yet also eccentric. Reminding ourselves of suggestive par-allels with Thailand will serve, at the very least, to rebut the temptation allels with Thailand will serve, at the very least, to rebut the temptation of reducing all crypto-colonialism to refractions of the Greek experience, of reducing all crypto-colonialism to refractions of the Greek experience, although the latter is ex
although the latter is extremely revealing of the internal contradictions thattremely revealing of the internal contradictions that models of European domination all contain. The very variety of models of European domination all contain. The very variety of crypto-colonialisms is the mark of the many ways in which colonial power had to colonialisms is the mark of the many ways in which colonial power had to de
dealal witwithh perpersissistententt loclocalal idideoeologlogiesies anandd vavalulueses,, anandd ththee prprododucuctiotionn ofof cicivil vili-i-zational discourses—including that of anthropology—is an important part zational discourses—including that of anthropology—is an important part of
of ththatat hihiststoryory.. AnAnththroropopologlogyy,, momoreoreoveverr,, cacannnnotot affafforordd toto igignonorere ititss owownn papastst entailments in these discursive processes if it is also to maintain its claim entailments in these discursive processes if it is also to maintain its claim to critical purchase.
to critical purchase.
A Risky Comparison A Risky Comparison
The recent histories of Greece and Thailand would certainly suggest both The recent histories of Greece and Thailand would certainly suggest both strong similarities and equally striking contrasts. At first blush, the strong similarities and equally striking contrasts. At first blush, the simi-larities seem to be directly related to international realpolitik, and such an larities seem to be directly related to international realpolitik, and such an
impression would not be so much inaccurate as historically shallow. Both impression would not be so much inaccurate as historically shallow. Both countries lie at
countries lie at the southeastern peninsular tips of continental landmassesthe southeastern peninsular tips of continental landmasses in which they have bordered, until recently, on countries with aggressively in which they have bordered, until recently, on countries with aggressively communist ideologies—ideologies to which these countries’ official communist ideologies—ideologies to which these countries’ official dis-courses oppose their own respective ‘‘national characters.’’ (Thailand also courses oppose their own respective ‘‘national characters.’’ (Thailand also looks south and southeast to Malaysia and Indonesia, both of which have looks south and southeast to Malaysia and Indonesia, both of which have al
alsoso beebeenn ththee scesceneness ofof cocommmmununistist rerevovolulutiotionanaryry acactitivityvity anandd fiefiercrcee cocoununter ter--repression; Greece only has Cyprus to the southeast in its immediate repression; Greece only has Cyprus to the southeast in its immediate vicin-ity,andhereGreece’sownroleisviewedbysomeinternalcriticsasaformof ity,andhereGreece’sownroleisviewedbysomeinternalcriticsasaformof culturalaswellaspoliticalcolonialisminitself.
culturalaswellaspoliticalcolonialisminitself.77)Theprevailingculturaland)Theprevailingculturaland
po
poliliticticalal tentensisiononss ththatat botbothh GrGreeceecee anandd ThaThailailandnd enentertertatainin witwithh ththeieirr rerespespec- c-ti
tiveve nonorthrtherernn neneigighhboborsrs hahaveve deedeepp hihiststororicicalal roroototss ththatat prpre-dae-datete ththee ararririvavall of of avowedly Marxist polities.
avowedly Marxist polities. Greece and ThailandGreece and Thailand, however, however, both served U, both served U.S..S. in
inteterereststss aass ststraratetegigicc poposisititiononss inin ththee cocoldld wawarr,, anandd seseemem toto hahaveve momorere ororlelessss ab
absosorbrbeded ththee AmAmeriericacann vievieww ththatat cocommmmununismism wawass inincocompmpatatibiblele witwithh cicivil vili-i-zatio
zation; it n; it is this is this logic that has to logic that has to some extent absorbed the locally specificsome extent absorbed the locally specific features of earlier antipathies.
features of earlier antipathies.
The Greek right-wing response to communism succeeded more or less The Greek right-wing response to communism succeeded more or less seamlessly to preceding ideas about the country’s northern neighbors. seamlessly to preceding ideas about the country’s northern neighbors. Greek intellectuals had, since before independence, sought to identify Greek intellectuals had, since before independence, sought to identify Greek social
Greek social atomatomism as ism as a a variety of variety of ‘‘‘‘EuroEuropean individpean individualismualism’’ in ’’ in a a man man--ner that at one and the same time allowed them to argue both that their ner that at one and the same time allowed them to argue both that their Slavic neighbors were uncivilized collectivists and that their own peasants Slavic neighbors were uncivilized collectivists and that their own peasants an
andd woworkerkersrs werweree spispiritritualuallyly corcorrupruptt (bec(becausausee ofof ‘‘T‘‘Turkurkishish’’’’inflinfluenuence)ce) anandd soso in
incacapapablblee ofof woworkrkiningg cocollellectictivelvelyy witwithohoutut ththee ststrorongng leleadaderershshipip ththatat ththee eleliteite stood ready to provide.
stood ready to provide.88 For Thailand the idea of freedom is certainly notFor Thailand the idea of freedom is certainly not
a product of this Eurocentric ideology, although its expression in national a product of this Eurocentric ideology, although its expression in national discourse may owe something to it.
discourse may owe something to it. Th
Thee iriroonyny ooff ththisis frfreeeedodom,m, hohoweweveverr,, isis ththatat itit inindedexexess bobothth cocoununtrtrieies’s’ susub- b-jection to imported models.
jection to imported models. The Greeks celebrate thThe Greeks celebrate the ‘‘fre ‘‘free spirit’’ that ‘ee spirit’’ that ‘‘lib- ‘lib-erated’’ them from ‘‘Turkish’’ (that is, Ottoman) rule and led them to erated’’ them from ‘‘Turkish’’ (that is, Ottoman) rule and led them to pre-fer ‘‘freedom to death,’’ while the name
fer ‘‘freedom to death,’’ while the name prathet Thaiprathet Thai (‘‘land of the free’’) was(‘‘land of the free’’) was adopted at the height of an irredentist phase of modern Thai history adopted at the height of an irredentist phase of modern Thai history par-tially inspired by Italian and German fascist models.
tially inspired by Italian and German fascist models.99 Those who dare toThose who dare to
oppose such models are ‘‘anti-Greek’’ or ‘‘un-Thai,’’ and are said to lack oppose such models are ‘‘anti-Greek’’ or ‘‘un-Thai,’’ and are said to lack ‘‘cul-ture’’—
ture’’— politismos politismos in Greek,in Greek, watthanathamwatthanathamin Thai.in Thai.1010 Such terms are archaicSuch terms are archaic
coinages, said to be derived from ancient Greek and Sanskrit respectively. coinages, said to be derived from ancient Greek and Sanskrit respectively.
Alth
Although both were ough both were coinecoined in d in theitheir respective locales as r respective locales as markmarks s of of indigindige- e-nous pride, they are clearly both responses to external criteria of cultural nous pride, they are clearly both responses to external criteria of cultural excellence.
excellence. In Greek,
In Greek, politismospolitismos means both means both ‘‘‘‘culture’’ and ‘‘civilization.culture’’ and ‘‘civilization.’’ Despite ’’ Despite fre- fre-quent invocations of a pastoral idyll, the internal-European answer to the quent invocations of a pastoral idyll, the internal-European answer to the ‘‘noble savage,’’
‘‘noble savage,’’1111 the European ideal was rooted in the idea of the city andthe European ideal was rooted in the idea of the city and
its accomplishments. In Italy, similarly, the ideal of
its accomplishments. In Italy, similarly, the ideal of civiltàciviltà remains a keyremains a key to urban cultural domination over the rural hinterland.
to urban cultural domination over the rural hinterland.1212 But in Thai thisBut in Thai this
equivalence is not sustained, and that fact alone should alert us to a equivalence is not sustained, and that fact alone should alert us to a some-what different dynamic, in which imitating the accomplishments of the what different dynamic, in which imitating the accomplishments of the West has meant having
West has meant having khwaamsiwilaikhwaamsiwilai (‘‘the quality of being civilized’’),(‘‘the quality of being civilized’’), whereas
whereas watthanathamwatthanatham (‘‘(‘‘culture’’) might culture’’) might actuallyactually excludeexclude the crass materi-the crass materi-alism that some Thai critics associate with the polluting effects of Western alism that some Thai critics associate with the polluting effects of Western cultural influence. The Thai use of Sanskrit terms for lofty concepts cultural influence. The Thai use of Sanskrit terms for lofty concepts pre-dates the European fascination with Sanskrit that supposedly began with dates the European fascination with Sanskrit that supposedly began with Jones’s eighteenth-century explorations, and has deep roots in religious Jones’s eighteenth-century explorations, and has deep roots in religious discourse, whereas the Greek terms, while certainly intelligible to anyone discourse, whereas the Greek terms, while certainly intelligible to anyone brought up on a diet of ecclesiastical Greek, were actually secular calques brought up on a diet of ecclesiastical Greek, were actually secular calques on
on ththee cucultltururalal tertermiminonologlogyy ofof ththee EnEnlilighghtentenmementnt.. ThThee papararallellell betbetweeweenn ththee twocountriesthereforedoesnotlieinasharedacceptanceofAryanisttheses twocountriesthereforedoesnotlieinasharedacceptanceofAryanisttheses emanating from the groves of German academe, but rather in the fact that emanating from the groves of German academe, but rather in the fact that both
bothgengeneraeratedted civicivilizlizatioationalnal termtermss inteintendended,d, thrthrougoughh ththeireir auaugusgustt antantiqiquityuity and cultural dignity, to earn the grudging respect
and cultural dignity, to earn the grudging respect of foreign powers.of foreign powers. The term
The term siwilaisiwilai, by contrast, is unmistakably a European-inspired coin-, by contrast, is unmistakably a European-inspired coin- ageinThailand,anditsideologicalimplicationshavetodowithwhatThong-chai Winichakul, adopting a metaphor developed by Mary Louise Pratt, chai Winichakul, adopting a metaphor developed by Mary Louise Pratt, describes as the ‘‘contact zone’’ that Thailand provides between local and describes as the ‘‘contact zone’’ that Thailand provides between local and in
invavasisiveve cucultlturures—es—aa sisitutuatiationon ththatat rerecacallslls ththee bubuffefferr zozonene stastatutuss ofof GrGreeceecee inin ‘‘‘th‘thee marmarginginss ofof EuEurorope.pe.’’’’1313SucSuchh culculturturalal amambigbiguityuity feedfeedss onon localocalizlizeded forformsms
of otherness, onto which dominant powers and their regional agents map of otherness, onto which dominant powers and their regional agents map la
largrgerer,, gloglobaball didivisvisioionsns.. AmAmonongg ththososee sususpespectectedd inin botbothh cocoununtrtrieiess ofof haharborbor- r-ing communist sympathies were members of minority groups, some with ing communist sympathies were members of minority groups, some with ethnic affiliations with neighboring and hostile nation-states. Even here, ethnic affiliations with neighboring and hostile nation-states. Even here, ho
howevweverer,, ththereere areare imimportportanantt diffdiffereerencences,s, shoshowinwingg howhowculculturturalal specispecificificitiesties inflect shared geopolitics. In Thailand, while the Muslims of the inflect shared geopolitics. In Thailand, while the Muslims of the southern-most provinces enjoy full citizenship, the hill tribes of the north—‘‘jungle most provinces enjoy full citizenship, the hill tribes of the north—‘‘jungle peoples’’ (
these people whom the Thais, in
these people whom the Thais, in a localized version of a localized version of VictoVictorian survival-rian survival-ism
ism,, hahaveve sosometmetimimeses rereprpresesenentedted asas emembodbodyinyingg ththee cocondnditiitiononss frfromom whwhicichh siwilai
siwilai has long since rescued the Thais themselves.has long since rescued the Thais themselves.
IInn GrGreeceece,e, ththee stastatutuss ofofmiminonoriritietiess isis alalsoso cocompmplexlex,, alalththououghgh ththee cocompmplex lexi-i-ties take
ties take an interestingly different form. Muslims are a recognizedan interestingly different form. Muslims are a recognizedreligiousreligious mi
minnororityity,, asas araree JJewews—s—bubutt wowoee betbetididee ananyy whwhoo cacallll ththememselselvevess ‘‘‘T‘Tururksks..’’’’ ThThee Greek authorities counter such self-ethnicizing terms on the grounds that Greek authorities counter such self-ethnicizing terms on the grounds that not all Greek Muslims are culturally Turkish, which is in fact true:
not all Greek Muslims are culturally Turkish, which is in fact true: PomaksPomaks speak Bulgarian, while there are others who speak Albanian and other speak Bulgarian, while there are others who speak Albanian and other lan-guages. But the state’s solution has been to deny the existence of
guages. But the state’s solution has been to deny the existence of ethnic ethnic minorities altogether, which means that those with potentially dangerous minorities altogether, which means that those with potentially dangerous affiliations to
affiliations to neighboring countries—especially Macedonians and Tuneighboring countries—especially Macedonians and Turks—rks— find their ethnicity completely silenced by their (Greek) citizenship.
find their ethnicity completely silenced by their (Greek) citizenship.
At first sight one might deduce that this was the exact analogue of the At first sight one might deduce that this was the exact analogue of the situation facing the hill tribes in Thailand. Yet it is not so much the
situation facing the hill tribes in Thailand. Yet it is not so much the chaochao paa
paa—despitetheirnoncitizenstatus—whoaretreatedassubversiveinThai- —despitetheirnoncitizenstatus—whoaretreatedassubversiveinThai-land; the authorities are particularly suspicious of southern Muslims of land; the authorities are particularly suspicious of southern Muslims of harboring separatist sentiments and equally suspect Chinese residents of harboring separatist sentiments and equally suspect Chinese residents of supporting the communist cause. But they see the
supporting the communist cause. But they see the chao paachao paa as insteadas instead representing the Thais’ own ‘‘primitive past,’’ a past to which energetic representing the Thais’ own ‘‘primitive past,’’ a past to which energetic cultural regimentation will now bring these remaining personifications of cultural regimentation will now bring these remaining personifications of Thailand’s collective childhood.
Thailand’s collective childhood.1515 If theIf the
chao paa
chao paa are potential Thais in theare potential Thais in the making, however, communists—and all who might be suspected of making, however, communists—and all who might be suspected of sym-pathizing with them—are treated as irremediably ‘‘un-Thai.’’
pathizing with them—are treated as irremediably ‘‘un-Thai.’’1616 In this lastIn this last
respect the Thai and (pre-) Greek situations have exhibited significant respect the Thai and (pre-) Greek situations have exhibited significant co
convnverergegencnce.e. HHellellenenizizatatioionn inin GrGreeceecee anandd ththee ququesestt foforr aa papan-n-ThThaiaisiwilaisiwilai inin Tha
Thailailandnd,, momoreoreoveverr,, araree botbothh ababououtt ththee crecreatatioionn ofof aa ststrorongng,, cencentrtralalizizeded cu cul-l-tu
turarall ididenentitityty dedesisigngneded toto prprototecectt ththee ‘‘‘w‘weaeakeker’r’’’ mememmbebersrs ofof ththee nanatitioonn frfromom the immoral
the immoral blandishments of blandishments of the ‘‘uncivilized’’ and the ‘‘uncivilized’’ and ‘‘‘‘subversive.subversive.’’’’
To make sure that this crypto-hegemony was properly locked in place, To make sure that this crypto-hegemony was properly locked in place, mo
moreoreoveverr,, loclocalal cucultltururalal anandd popolitliticicalal leleadadererss hahaveve wawagegedd aggaggreressssivivee cencentrtral al--izing campaigns to homogenize their respective national languages. Here izing campaigns to homogenize their respective national languages. Here ag
agaiainn wewe seseee nanatitiononalal prprididee aandnd cucultltururalal inindedepepenndedencncee asas aa mamarkrk ofof popolilititicacall dependence. But whereas in the Greek case the model of ‘‘purist’’ (
dependence. But whereas in the Greek case the model of ‘‘purist’’ (kathare- kathare-vousa
vousa)) spspeeeechch,, whwhicichh reremamainineded ththee oofficfficiaiall lalannguguagagee ooff ststatatee ununtitill ,, wawass constructed in
constructed in emulation of West European ideas about the classical Greekemulation of West European ideas about the classical Greek language, leaving the local dialect of Athens to perish from neglect, Thai language, leaving the local dialect of Athens to perish from neglect, Thai
language reforms seem to have been direct
language reforms seem to have been directed more to homogenization anded more to homogenization and to
to ththee adadoptoptioionn ofof aa SanSanskrskriticitic vocavocabulbularyary thathatt wouwould—ld—nononethnetheleeless—ss—matmatchch the demand
the demands of academic and philosophs of academic and philosophical discourse in theical discourse in the WWest. Both, inest. Both, in ot
otheherr wowordrds,s, wewerere atattemtemptptss toto ememululateate ththee WWestest;; bubutt ththeieirr rerelalatiotionsnshihipp witwithh local linguistic practices was interestingly divergent.
local linguistic practices was interestingly divergent. On
Onee cocommmmonon fefeatatururee spspriringngss frfromom ththee reresesentntmementnt ththatat eleliteite ememululatiationonof of W
Western models has engendered. Bothestern models has engendered. Both countries are, significantlycountries are, significantly, home to, home to re
religligioionsns inin whwhicichh momonanastisticiscismm plplayayss anan imimpoportartantnt rorole,le, ononee ththatat isis inincrecreas as--in
inglygly,, albalbeiteit thrthrougoughh marmarginginalal grogroupsups (su(suchch asas ththee neo-Orthneo-Orthodoodoxx movmovemeementnt in Greece and reformist programs in Thailand), generating opposition to in Greece and reformist programs in Thailand), generating opposition to Western and materialist morals and models. Indeed, such reactions even Western and materialist morals and models. Indeed, such reactions even turnagainsttheofficialrepositoriesofreligiousauthority;theneo-Orthodox turnagainsttheofficialrepositoriesofreligiousauthority;theneo-Orthodox complain about the ‘‘protestantization’’—at least in a formal, Weberian complain about the ‘‘protestantization’’—at least in a formal, Weberian sense—of the Church of Greece, while criticism of the Sangha in Thailand sense—of the Church of Greece, while criticism of the Sangha in Thailand by groups such as Santi Asoke has similarly attacked its bureaucratic struc by groups such as Santi Asoke has similarly attacked its bureaucratic struc--ture as well as its tolerance of corruption and materialism. While this is ture as well as its tolerance of corruption and materialism. While this is not the whole story—other religious developments, such as the not the whole story—other religious developments, such as the Dhamma-kaya movement and certain local cults, have appeared to sanction kaya movement and certain local cults, have appeared to sanction material-ist concerns—it does at least suggest that one common reaction to ist concerns—it does at least suggest that one common reaction to crypto-colonialism may take the form of antimaterialist religious activity in places colonialism may take the form of antimaterialist religious activity in places widely separated by geography and culture.
widely separated by geography and culture.1717
Such parallels, I suggest, are far from coincidental. If Thailand and Such parallels, I suggest, are far from coincidental. If Thailand and Greece had to
Greece had to make major concessions to the European powers in order tomake major concessions to the European powers in order to maintain any semblance of sovereignty, internal cultural regimentation— maintain any semblance of sovereignty, internal cultural regimentation— the space where the agents of foreign powers displayed, so to speak, their the space where the agents of foreign powers displayed, so to speak, their own agency—provided such deals with a firm base: they established a own agency—provided such deals with a firm base: they established a pre-sumed common code of diplomatic morality, empowering these elite sumed common code of diplomatic morality, empowering these elite indi-viduals and groups to consolidate their authority, using culture as its viduals and groups to consolidate their authority, using culture as its pri-mary measure and economic coercion as its most compelling instrument. mary measure and economic coercion as its most compelling instrument. There were important differences at this level also, to be sure. Thailand, There were important differences at this level also, to be sure. Thailand, unlike Greece, had existed as a recognized sovereign state, albeit in much unlike Greece, had existed as a recognized sovereign state, albeit in much more fragmented form,
more fragmented form,1818 for many centuries. Its monarchy was locallyfor many centuries. Its monarchy was locally
embedded in religious systems, whereas the Greek kings had to make embedded in religious systems, whereas the Greek kings had to make sym-bolic claims on a Byzantine crown that rang especially hollow in that the bolic claims on a Byzantine crown that rang especially hollow in that the ancient Byzantium was
ancient Byzantium was now the enemynow the enemy’s—T’s—Turkey’s—most important curkey’s—most important city,ity, Is
Istatannbubul.l.ThThee GrGreekeek momonanarcrchyhy wawass alalwawaysys dederiridededd asas foforereigign,n, becbecauausese itit wawass widely perceived to be a key agent of the crypto-colonial process.
Anthropology and the Quest for Origins: Hellenism Bound Anthropology and the Quest for Origins: Hellenism Bound
So Sanskrit was the bedrock; but Greece was assumed to be where it So Sanskrit was the bedrock; but Greece was assumed to be where it was thought to have erupted in a truly recognizable burst of European was thought to have erupted in a truly recognizable burst of European genius, individualism, and initiative. Such is the discipline’s implicit genius, individualism, and initiative. Such is the discipline’s implicit ori-gin myth. This anthropology, moreover, is not the
gin myth. This anthropology, moreover, is not the anthropologiaanthropologia (the study(the study of humankind’s role in the cosmos) of Orthodoxy, but the project of a of humankind’s role in the cosmos) of Orthodoxy, but the project of a supposedly ‘‘superstition’’-free rationality.
supposedly ‘‘superstition’’-free rationality.1919 I have encountered informal,I have encountered informal,
casual attempts to represent both anthropologies as fundamentally the casual attempts to represent both anthropologies as fundamentally the same, just as there is a long history in post-Independence Greece of same, just as there is a long history in post-Independence Greece of try-ing to prove that the ancient philosophers were the intellectual ing to prove that the ancient philosophers were the intellectual forerun-ner
nerss ofof ChrChristiistiananityity,, butbutththeseese areareafteafter-tr-the-fhe-factactverversiosionsns ofof ththee lonlong-stg-stanandindingg Greek agony over how (pagan) Hellenism and (Christ
Greek agony over how (pagan) Hellenism and (Christian) Greekness mightian) Greekness might be combined.
be combined.2020 Nor is the study of ‘‘ordinary people’’ (Nor is the study of ‘‘ordinary people’’ (
anthropi
anthropi, classical, classical anthropoi
anthropoi), with all their socially lubricating flaws and twists, the model), with all their socially lubricating flaws and twists, the model for anthropology as it conceived itself until very recently. That model is for anthropology as it conceived itself until very recently. That model is severely neoclassical—as neoclassical as a nineteenth-century bourgeois severely neoclassical—as neoclassical as a nineteenth-century bourgeois Greek house, and, I suggest, no closer than that to the conceptual systems Greek house, and, I suggest, no closer than that to the conceptual systems of high antiquity.
of high antiquity.
Because the Greek case allows us to ironize the history of the discipline Because the Greek case allows us to ironize the history of the discipline so effectively, an exploration of the peculiarly unsatisfactory classical so effectively, an exploration of the peculiarly unsatisfactory classical gene-alogy of anthropology may be useful in assessing critically its role in the alogy of anthropology may be useful in assessing critically its role in the description and analysis of society and culture in Thailand—or, indeed, in description and analysis of society and culture in Thailand—or, indeed, in any other country that might plausibly be counted among the ranks of the any other country that might plausibly be counted among the ranks of the cryp
crypto-cto-cololononiesies.. ThThisis isis nonott toto esessesentintialalizizee ththee crypcrypto-cto-cololononiesies anandd soso reredducucee them to yet another case of anthropological classification. It is to use them to yet another case of anthropological classification. It is to use taxon-omy to undo taxontaxon-omy, but always with an eye on significant differences omy to undo taxonomy, but always with an eye on significant differences that will also make any generalizations usefully unstable. It is in this spirit that will also make any generalizations usefully unstable. It is in this spirit that I propose the Greek case as offering a way into the disentanglement that I propose the Greek case as offering a way into the disentanglement of
of a a discoudiscourse rse that, while that, while purpopurporting to rting to celebcelebrate national independrate national independence,ence, actually seems to further its effective strangulation at birth.
actually seems to further its effective strangulation at birth.
Historians and Anthropologists Historians and Anthropologists
The usual institutional starting-point of anthropology as a discipline The usual institutional starting-point of anthropology as a discipline co-incides with E. B. Tylor’s earliest use of the word in .
incides with E. B. Tylor’s earliest use of the word in .2121 But underlyingBut underlying
assumptions about Western civilization appear to have pushed the origins assumptions about Western civilization appear to have pushed the origins back to a far earlier date. Margaret Hodgen, for example, argued strongly back to a far earlier date. Margaret Hodgen, for example, argued strongly
against the Tylorean claims to originary status, adducing impressive against the Tylorean claims to originary status, adducing impressive evi-dence for the emergence of a truly anthropological perspective in medieval dence for the emergence of a truly anthropological perspective in medieval and Renaissance Europe and—in an unconscious echo of the Greek and Renaissance Europe and—in an unconscious echo of the Greek histo-rian’
rian’s own ets own etymological myths of ymological myths of origin—‘origin—‘‘tracking down’‘tracking down’’ its ’ its ultimate ori-ultimate ori-gins to
gins to HerodotusHerodotus..2222
At least since her impassioned but scholarly attempt to set the record At least since her impassioned but scholarly attempt to set the record straight, the older, classical line of ancestry has been the received wisdom. straight, the older, classical line of ancestry has been the received wisdom. In this recension, Herodotus is not only the ‘‘father of history’’ but also In this recension, Herodotus is not only the ‘‘father of history’’ but also the ‘‘father of anthropology,’’ a suggestively unilineal descent attribution the ‘‘father of anthropology,’’ a suggestively unilineal descent attribution that also generates the quarrelsome myth of the rival siblings, history and that also generates the quarrelsome myth of the rival siblings, history and anthropology
anthropology, in the contested , in the contested history of anthropology. At several stages inhistory of anthropology. At several stages in the developme
the development nt of of anthanthroporopology—bulogy—but t most dramaticamost dramatically lly in in the scientis-the scientis-tic rejection of history as a model for anthropology—anthropologists have tic rejection of history as a model for anthropology—anthropologists have fought over whether history was even relevant to anthropological concerns. fought over whether history was even relevant to anthropological concerns. Su
Suchch dedebabatestes hahaveve papartirticuculalarr rerelevlevanancece foforr ththee prpresesenentt didiscuscussssioionn whwhenen ththeyey occur at the heart of empire. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, for example, saw the occur at the heart of empire. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, for example, saw the specifici
specificity ty of of histohistory ry (what he (what he called its called its ‘‘i‘‘idiogrdiographaphic’’ characteric’’ character) ) as neces-as neces-sarily incompatible with the kind of dehistoricized cultural science that he sarily incompatible with the kind of dehistoricized cultural science that he wanted to create; E. E. Evans-Pritchard, at once product and critic of the wanted to create; E. E. Evans-Pritchard, at once product and critic of the co
cololoninialal enenterterprpriseise,, sasaww inin ththatat sasameme spespecificificitcityy ththee popossssibibiliilityty foforr anan unundeder- r-sta
standndiningg ofof cucultltururee lodlodgegedd inin ththee sosociaciallexperienceexperienceofof orordindinaryary peoppeople—le—aa plu plu--ralist vision of history, a multiplicity of histories.
ralist vision of history, a multiplicity of histories.2323
Th
Thee supsupprepressssionion of of histhistoryory parparallalleledeled ththee supsupprepressissionon ofof phphilolilologiogicalcal cocon- n-ce
cernrns;s; inin ththee afaftertermamathth ofof susurvirvivavalislism,m, ququesestiotionsns ababououtt cucultltururalal ororigigininss wewerere in
in babadd ododoror..YYetet,, asasVVicicoo hahadd shshowown,n, ththee phphililolologogicicalal anandd hihiststororicicalal totoooll momostst us
useded foforr ththee lelegitgitimimatatioionn ofof popowewer—r—etyetymomolology—gy—cocoululdd alalsoso bebe ususeded susubvbver er--si
sivevelyly,, inin orordederr toto gegeneneraratete whwhatat NaNancyncy StStrurueveverer hahass rerecocogngnizizeded asas aa crcritiitiququee of
of civicivill disdisababilityility..2424PrPrececiseiselyly becbecauausese ththee seeseemimingng perpersissistentencece ofof wowordrd foformrmss
may mask considerab
may mask considerable disruptions of older meanings, etymology is a tle disruptions of older meanings, etymology is a two- wo-edged sword. Evans-Pritchard, whose reading of Vico through the works of edged sword. Evans-Pritchard, whose reading of Vico through the works of R.
R.GG.. CoCollillingngwowoodod mamayy hahaveve sesensnsitiitizezedd hihimm toto ththee susubvbverersisiveve popossssibibiliilitietiess of of etym
etymoloologygy,, recrecognognizeizedd thathatt ‘‘‘a‘anthnthroropolopologistgistss havhavee selseldodomm madmadee veryvery seriseriousous efforts to reconstruct from historical record and verbal tradition the past of efforts to reconstruct from historical record and verbal tradition the past of th
thee peopeoplplee ththeyey hahaveve ststududieied.d. IItt wawass hheleldd ththatat ththisis wawass anan ‘‘aantntiqiquauaririanan’’ ininteter- r-est and that it was irrelevant to a functional study of institutions to know est and that it was irrelevant to a functional study of institutions to know how they have changed.’’
how they have changed.’’2525 But Evans-Pritchard was probably more inter-But Evans-Pritchard was probably more
inter-estedinthesimplerquestionofrecoveringfactsaboutthepast.Eventhough estedinthesimplerquestionofrecoveringfactsaboutthepast.Eventhough
scholars of
scholars of oral tradition were oral tradition were subsequentlysubsequently, and , and somewhat controversiallysomewhat controversially,, toreintroducethetechniquesofmanuscriptgenealogy,
toreintroducethetechniquesofmanuscriptgenealogy,2626themajorityofthisthemajorityofthis
kin
kindd ofof woworkrk reremamainineded inin ththee hahandndss ofof nanatiotionanalislistt fofolklklolorisriststs.. AnAndd ththeyey wewerere certainly not interested in subverting authoritative etymologies; they were certainly not interested in subverting authoritative etymologies; they were more interested in constructing their own.
more interested in constructing their own.
Evans-Pritchard’s vision was an important step in the decolonization of Evans-Pritchard’s vision was an important step in the decolonization of an
anththroropopolologygy.. HHee rerecocogngnizizeded ththee effeffecectsts ofof evevenentsts onon whwhatat seseememeded toto bebe ththee most intractably atemporal forms of social structure, both in
most intractably atemporal forms of social structure, both in his treatmenthis treatment of Nuer li
of Nuer lineage segmentation and also, especially, in his work on the rise of neage segmentation and also, especially, in his work on the rise of the Libya
the Libyan monarn monarchychy.. One of his pupils, J. K.One of his pupils, J. K. CampCampbell, an anthrobell, an anthropologistpologist and historian who trained numerous scholars in both disciplines, moved and historian who trained numerous scholars in both disciplines, moved the seemingly ahistorical idiom of
the seemingly ahistorical idiom of Evans-Pritchard’Evans-Pritchard’s analysis of moral com-s analysis of moral com-mu
muninityty inintoto ththee EuEuroropeapeann setsettintingg ofof GrGreeceece,e, whwhereree hihiststoryory,, evevenen ththououghgh ththee marginal population of shepherds he studied might be officially excluded marginal population of shepherds he studied might be officially excluded from it, nonetheless could not b
from it, nonetheless could not be sidesteppee sidestepped by the d by the ethnographethnographer.er.2727
Hi
Histstoryory anandd ananththroropopolologygy araree cucuririououslslyy amambibivavalelentnt ababououtt eaeachch othotherer.. ThThee complementary opposition between them lies in the ease with which each complementary opposition between them lies in the ease with which each disciplinecanstifleitsownobject.Institutionalizedhistoriesabolishtimein disciplinecanstifleitsownobject.Institutionalizedhistoriesabolishtimein the name of time;
the name of time; what Radcliffe-Brown called ‘‘nomothetic’’ ways of doingwhat Radcliffe-Brown called ‘‘nomothetic’’ ways of doing anthropologycanabolishthestructuringofsocialexperienceorinthename anthropologycanabolishthestructuringofsocialexperienceorinthename of social structure.
of social structure.2828 Analysis of these processes entails a committed resis-Analysis of these processes entails a committed
resis-tance to the process of progressive amnesia: like Vico, demanding a tance to the process of progressive amnesia: like Vico, demanding a sub-versive view of etymology precisely
versive view of etymology preciselybecausebecause institutions habitually used ety-institutions habitually used ety-mologytolegitimizethemselves,weshouldtrytoturnthediscipline’sname mologytolegitimizethemselves,weshouldtrytoturnthediscipline’sname into a critique of Eurocentric identity situated in the particularities of its into a critique of Eurocentric identity situated in the particularities of its inescapably material history.
inescapably material history.2929
Inthenomenclatureofanthropology(orofanyotherscientificdiscourse), Inthenomenclatureofanthropology(orofanyotherscientificdiscourse), the rhetoric of classical etymology is not just a posture; it is also a strong the rhetoric of classical etymology is not just a posture; it is also a strong instance of that ultimate rhetorical trick, that of a rhetoric that denies that instance of that ultimate rhetorical trick, that of a rhetoric that denies that it is rhetorical at all.
it is rhetorical at all. The simplest demoThe simplest demonstration of this point is likely to benstration of this point is likely to be the most effective. Etymology not only legitimizes a connection that does the most effective. Etymology not only legitimizes a connection that does not necessarily subsist, but also deflects attention away from the not necessarily subsist, but also deflects attention away from the ephemer-al
alityity ofof ththatat coconnnnectectioion—n—inindeedeed,d, mamaterteriaialilizezess itit—b—byy ththee dedevicvicee ofof prprocloclaiaim- m-ing the cognate signifiers as though they were a sm-ingle signified, ing the cognate signifiers as though they were a single signified, collaps-ing all temporal shifts in meancollaps-ing into a scollaps-ingle, indivisible, timeless truth. ing all temporal shifts in meaning into a single, indivisible, timeless truth. The derivation of
The derivation of anthropologyanthropology fromfrom anthroposanthropos andand logoslogos rests on idealiza-rests on idealiza-tions, arguably more appropriate to the Enlightenment and Romanticism tions, arguably more appropriate to the Enlightenment and Romanticism
than to classical though
than to classical thought, of t, of both humankind and discourse.both humankind and discourse. TTo turn againo turn again to Thailand, where the terminology of the human sciences is all derived to Thailand, where the terminology of the human sciences is all derived fr
fromom SaSansnskrkritit,, ththee tetermrm foforranthropologyanthropology——maanuthyawithayaamaanuthyawithayaa,, ‘‘‘t‘thehe sciscienencece of humankind’’—is calqued on Western terminology but evokes scriptural of humankind’’—is calqued on Western terminology but evokes scriptural authority through its use of Sanskrit; the usual word for ‘‘person,’’
authority through its use of Sanskrit; the usual word for ‘‘person,’’ khonkhon (as in
(as in khon Thaikhon Thai, ‘‘Thai person’’), does not possess this resonance, would, ‘‘Thai person’’), does not possess this resonance, would not make sense in a modern Thai academic context, and yet (together with not make sense in a modern Thai academic context, and yet (together with phuu
phuu and the prefixand the prefix nak-nak-) captures more or less the range of social mean-) captures more or less the range of social mean-ingsimpliedbytheeverydayGreekuseof
ingsimpliedbytheeverydayGreekuseof anthroposanthropos(‘(‘‘per‘personson’’’’),), altalthohoughughitit isis neutral with respect to
neutral with respect to the everyday moral flaws that go with the everyday moral flaws that go with being an ordi-being an ordi-narilysociablepersonandthatareimpliedintheGreekphrase
narilysociablepersonandthatareimpliedintheGreekphrase anthranthropiopi dhendhen imaste
imaste? (‘‘aren? (‘‘aren’t we ’t we human?’human?’’). It is ’). It is perhaps significant that whereas in Thai-perhaps significant that whereas in Thai-land anthropology as a discipline taught in the national university system land anthropology as a discipline taught in the national university system ha
hass aa hihiststororyy ofof seseveverarall dedecacadedes,s, ththee fifirsrstt GrGreeeekk dedepapartmrtmenentt ofof sosocicialal ananththro ro--po
pologlogyy wawass fofounundededd ononlyly inin ..3030NNotot ononlyly dididd GrGreekeek ananththroropopolologisgiststs hahaveve
toaddresstheentrenchedhegemonyofnationalisticfolklorestudies,butthe toaddresstheentrenchedhegemonyofnationalisticfolklorestudies,butthe veryordinarinessofthediscipline’ssubjectmattermadeithardtograsp:the veryordinarinessofthediscipline’ssubjectmattermadeithardtograsp:the res
resententfufull mumunicnicipaipalitylity of of MytilMytileneene,, whwhereere ththee firfirstst ununiviversersityity depdepartmartmentent of of social anthropology replaced the p
social anthropology replaced the popular (and populous) education depart-opular (and populous) education depart-ment, voted
ment, voted for a motion criticfor a motion criticizing the ‘‘izing the ‘‘cloudy [that is, vague] disccloudy [that is, vague] discipline of ipline of social anthropology.’’
social anthropology.’’
The problem is precisely that in Greece
The problem is precisely that in Greece the namethe nameanthropoloyiaanthropoloyia appearedappeared to confirm the sense, entertained by
to confirm the sense, entertained by many Greek scholars, that anthropolo-many Greek scholars, that anthropolo-gists were simply making a lot of academic noise about perfectly ordinary gists were simply making a lot of academic noise about perfectly ordinary matters that required n
matters that required no elucidation.o elucidation. Outside Greece, howeverOutside Greece, however, the grandi-, the grandi-ose resonance of the Tylorean coinage produced the opposite effect. Like ose resonance of the Tylorean coinage produced the opposite effect. Like thos
those verboe verbose medse medical Hical Hellenisellenisms thams thatt mystifymystify the the work work ofof doctodoctors in rs in aa wayway that Hippocrates would surely have found objectionable, the very name of that Hippocrates would surely have found objectionable, the very name of anthropology appeared to lodge its origins in classical thought. Above all, anthropology appeared to lodge its origins in classical thought. Above all, it evoked a notion of abstract theory that has come—as Détienne pointed it evoked a notion of abstract theory that has come—as Détienne pointed out
out3131—to be identified in the writings of Hegel with the very notion of —to be identified in the writings of Hegel with the very notion of
Eu
Euroropepe ititseselflf.. IItt apappeapealeledd atat ononcece toto anan EnEnlilighghtentenmementnt vievieww ofof ththee exexererciscisee of of pure reason an
pure reason and a Romand a Romantic vision of tic vision of human nathuman nature.ure. Greece’s relationshipGreece’s relationship with European claims on intel
with European claims on intellectual hegemony and even transcendence—lectual hegemony and even transcendence— a phenomen
a phenomenon that Humphreys specifically traced to on that Humphreys specifically traced to the ancient Greeks—the ancient Greeks— makes its relative exclusion from the theoretical canon a point of particular makes its relative exclusion from the theoretical canon a point of particular interest.
simi-larly excluded. It is not a matter of size (Thailand, for example, has about larly excluded. It is not a matter of size (Thailand, for example, has about five times the population of Greece); nor, obviously, is it the result of five times the population of Greece); nor, obviously, is it the result of colo-ni
nialal dodomiminanatiotion,n, nonott ononlyly becbecauausese ththesesee cocoununtrtrieiess araree prprececiseiselyly ththee ononeses ththatat were
werenotnotdidirerectlctlyy ruruleledd byby ththee cocololoninialal powpowerers,s, bubutt alalsoso becbecauausese itit isis prprecieciseselyly these former colonies that have long been and remain the sites of some these former colonies that have long been and remain the sites of some of the most energetic theory-building—India, Indonesia, large swathes of of the most energetic theory-building—India, Indonesia, large swathes of sub-Saharan Africa, the Australian outback, the Maghreb, just to name sub-Saharan Africa, the Australian outback, the Maghreb, just to name thethe obvious cases.
obvious cases.
Lineages and Identities Lineages and Identities
So total is the assumption that Greece is the Hellas of the classical past So total is the assumption that Greece is the Hellas of the classical past that the first major ethnography of a
that the first major ethnography of a modernmodern Greek community actuallyGreek community actually had to be subtitled
had to be subtitled A Village A Village in Modern Greecein Modern Greece..3333 (Being an e(Being an ethnograthnographer of pher of
Greece today provides
Greece today provides a fine introduction to the problem, since one’a fine introduction to the problem, since one’s inter-s inter-locutors are apt to assume automatically that one is a classical locutors are apt to assume automatically that one is a classical archaeolo-gist.) At least other civilizations that the
gist.) At least other civilizations that the WWest could bring itself to canonest could bring itself to canonizeize as
as ‘‘‘‘great’’—Igreat’’—India, China, Japanndia, China, Japan—were e—were exotic xotic enough, and enough, and clearly clearly ‘‘not us.’‘‘not us.’’’ As such, their extension into modern times did not pose as great a As such, their extension into modern times did not pose as great a poten-tial
tial thrthreateat toto ththee selself-cof-constinstituttutionion of of ‘‘‘‘EurEuropeope’’’’;; ththeyey seemseemeded ununamambigbiguouuouslysly and emphatically not
and emphatically not ‘‘really modern.‘‘really modern.’’ European nationalist ideologues ’’ European nationalist ideologues col- col-lectively distinguished the world’s ancient civilizations, including that of lectively distinguished the world’s ancient civilizations, including that of Greece, from modern civilization, by invoking the relative homogeneity of Greece, from modern civilization, by invoking the relative homogeneity of the former as compared with
the former as compared with the latter.the latter.3434But this is not the whole story; forBut this is not the whole story; for
the assumption that ‘‘the Greeks’’ somehow fathered the West as a whole the assumption that ‘‘the Greeks’’ somehow fathered the West as a whole me
meanantt ththatat ththeyey hahadd toto bebe ininvovokekedd anandd susuppppreresssseded atat ththee sasameme titimeme.. ClClauaudede Lévi-Strauss, who argued that all our commentaries on ancient myths are Lévi-Strauss, who argued that all our commentaries on ancient myths are but variants of those myths, might be intrigued to discover here an but variants of those myths, might be intrigued to discover here an Oedi-pal process at the very heart of European intellectual history.
pal process at the very heart of European intellectual history.3535 HerodotusHerodotus
is, let us
is, let us recall again, hailed as therecall again, hailed as thefather father of modern of modern anthropologyanthropology. (Perhaps. (Perhaps it is no coincidence that a closely related intellectual tradition, this time in it is no coincidence that a closely related intellectual tradition, this time in th
thee forformm ofof claclassissicalcal phphiloilologylogy,, sucsucceedceeded—ed—accaccorordindingg toto MaMartinrtin BerBernalnal—in—in suppressing this same Herodotus’ opinions about the origins of Gre
suppressing this same Herodotus’ opinions about the origins of Greek andek and therefore of European culture, in order to generate a myth of spontaneous therefore of European culture, in order to generate a myth of spontaneous genesis?
genesis?3636))
The classical Greece of the anthropologists is thus, for the most part, a The classical Greece of the anthropologists is thus, for the most part, a chimer
