Doing Business in
China
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Tables of Contents
INTRODUCTION ...1
EQUITY JOINT VENTURES ...2
COOPERATIVE JOINT VENTURES ...8
WHOLLY FOREIGN-OWNED ENTERPRISES ...12
REPRESENTATIVE OFFICES ...15
DISTRIBUTION ...17
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN CHINA ...20
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS ...25
ANTITRUST AND COMPETITION LAWS ...30
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION ...39
EMPLOYMENT ISSUES ...54
TAXATION ...60
CONCLUSION ...66
SELECTED FOREIGN INVESTMENT LAWS ...67
Baker & McKenzie in China ... 189
INTRODUCTION
This guide provides an introduction to selected aspects
relating to investment and business operations in the People’s Republic of China (“PRC”) under current Chinese law and policy. We provide a brief outline of equity and cooperative joint ventures, wholly foreign-owned enterprises, and representative offices. The guide also includes a summary of mergers and acquisitions, taxation, import and export rules, competition issues, intellectual property protection, etc. The final part of the guide includes selected translations of China’s foreign investment laws.
EQUITY JOINT VENTURES
Legal status
An equity joint venture is a Chinese legal person with limited liability. It is established on the basis of a joint venture contract between Chinese and foreign parties after approval by the Ministry of Commerce (“MOFCOM”), or its local counterpart, and other relevant departments.
Equity joint ventures are regulated primarily by the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures (the “Joint Venture Law”) and the Implementing Regulations for the Joint Venture Law (the “Joint Venture Regulations”). In addition, supplementary legislation covers such issues as contributions of registered capital, debt-equity ratios, registration, labor, imports and exports, foreign exchange, accounting and taxation. The Company Law of the People’s Republic of China (the “Company Law”) also includes certain provisions that apply to equity joint ventures. These pieces of legislation, however, do not cover all relevant issues. There is a lack of regulations and precedents to provide guidance in resolving some issues of corporate organization, management and procedures. In some cases, these issues can be resolved by including appropriate provisions in the joint venture contract or articles of association. In other cases, uncertainties may be resolved by consultation with MOFCOM or its local counterpart.
Establishment
The procedure for establishing equity joint ventures (and other foreign-invested enterprises) may vary depending on the location and the ownership structure of the Chinese party. First, the Chinese party, generally a state-owned entity, must receive preliminary approval for the project from its department in charge. The Chinese party must submit a project proposal and preliminary feasibility study to its superior governmental department and to the appropriate examination and approval authority (generally MOFCOM or its local counterpart). After the Chinese party has received initial approval from the examination and approval authorities, the parties will prepare a joint feasibility study that reflects their assessment of the economic viability of the proposed project.
The parties will proceed to negotiate and draft the joint venture contract and articles of association. When the parties have completed these documents, they must apply to the examination and approval authority by submitting an application, the joint feasibility study, the joint venture contract and articles of association, as well as other documents. Upon receipt of these documents, the authorities will need to review these documents and decide whether to approve the proposed joint venture.
In general, the establishment of an equity joint venture will have to be approved by the State Development and Reform Commission, MOFCOM or local governments depending on the size and business nature of the proposed joint venture and other factors. The contracts and articles of association of “large” equity joint ventures will have to be approved by MOFCOM.
After approval, the joint venture must register with the local bureau of the State Administration for Industry and Commerce (“SAIC”) within one month. The joint venture will then be issued with a formal business license and be officially established.
Documentation
The Joint Venture Regulations do not set forth detailed requirements for the form or contents of documents such as the letter of intent, feasibility study, the joint venture contract and articles of association. The Chinese authorities have, however, published model forms for joint venture contracts and articles of association that are closely adhered to by the Chinese parties to joint ventures. By law, the joint feasibility study, joint venture contract and articles of association may be drafted in both Chinese and a foreign language. Under the Joint Venture Regulations the joint venture contract must be governed by Chinese law.
In addition to the above documents, the parties will often simultaneously negotiate and execute contracts related to the joint venture’s operations, such as those for technology transfer, trademark licenses, and supplies of parts or raw materials, as well as for the distribution of finished products. These related contracts may be attached to the joint venture contract as attachments.
Parties’ investments
The most important concepts relating to the capitalization of an equity joint venture are “registered capital” and “total investment.” In the joint venture legislation, “registered capital” refers to the total amount of paid-in capital contributions by the parties to the joint venture. The “total investment” equals
“registered capital” plus permitted financing for the joint venture. The capital of joint ventures must meet certain debt to equity ratios. For example, if the total investment is less than US$3 million, at least 70% of the total investment must be registered capital.
Capital contributions may take several forms, including cash, buildings, equipment, technology, materials and the right to use land. If the capital contributions are in a form other than cash, the parties must agree on the appropriate value of the contributions on the basis of fairness and reasonableness or agree to have a third party make the evaluation. In addition, the valuation is subject to verification by official appraisers. Limits also apply to the amount of intangible capital contributions. The timing of capital contributions must also conform with certain schedules. For example, if the registered capital is contributed at one time, it must be contributed within six months following issuance of the business license. An equity joint venture must obtain approval from the examination and approval authorities for increases or reductions of its registered capital.
Term and scope of activities
Joint ventures in China are typically limited to a fixed term, which must be stipulated in the joint venture contract. In practice, the usual range is between 15 years and 50 years depending on the size and nature of the project, with most substantial manufacturing ventures having a term of 25 years or more. Indefinite terms are permitted subject to government approval, but joint ventures in certain service industries, land development and real estate, natural resource exploration and exploitation projects, and other areas, which are restricted must
have a fixed term. Upon the expiration of its term, an equity joint venture is to be dissolved, with the property remaining after clearance of debts to be distributed in accordance with the ratio of the parties’ capital contributions except where the joint venture agreement, contract or articles of association have other stipulations.
Under the current PRC corporate law regime, all entities in China (whether domestic or foreign-invested) have definitive “business scopes” approved by the governmental authorities, which specify the range of business activities in which they are permitted to engage. The business scopes are generally brief and quite specific. They require careful drafting and are often the subject of negotiation between investors and the government authorities in the pre-establishment stage.
Foreign exchange
China’s national currency, the Renminbi, is not freely convertible into other currencies. Nevertheless, China has introduced a form of current account convertibility, under which joint ventures may purchase foreign exchange for current account expenditures without the necessity of obtaining government approval. China also permits the conversion of Renminbi into foreign exchange for remittances of after-tax profits or dividends to foreign investors in equity joint ventures. Foreign exchange remittances and receipts must go through banks that have been designated to handle foreign exchange transactions. Instead of government approval for foreign exchange
remittances and receipts, the designated banks examine the documentation for the underlying transaction to ensure that the proposed payment or receipt qualifies as a current account item. Joint ventures also have access to the interbank market
for the purchase and sale of foreign exchange through the designated banks.
Government approval is still required for the purchase and remittance of foreign exchange for capital account transactions.
Financial administration
An equity joint venture is required to adopt accounting procedures based on a dual-entry, accrual system. All accounting records, books and statements are required to be prepared and kept in Chinese. The accounting system adopted by the joint venture must be reported, for the record, to the competent government authorities and the local financial and tax departments. Chinese legislation also requires an accountant registered in China to act as the auditor of the joint venture.
An annual profit distribution plan has to be prepared and
distribution of profits among the parties should be in proportion to their respective contributions to the registered capital of the joint venture.
Equity joint ventures are required to allocate a certain percentage of after-tax profits to a reserve fund, enterprise expansion fund and incentive and welfare fund for staff and workers.
COOPERATIVE JOINT VENTURES
Legal status
Cooperative joint ventures, in which the Chinese and foreign parties cooperate on the basis of a joint venture contract, became common in the early 1980s. The Law of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Joint
Ventures (the “Cooperative Joint Venture Law”), promulgated in 1988 and amended on October 31, 2000, essentially confirmed the established practice. “Contractual joint venture” is another term for cooperative joint venture. The Detailed Implementing Rules for the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Chinese-Foreign Cooperative Joint Ventures (the “Cooperative Joint Venture Regulations”), promulgated on September 4, 1995, will presumably be amended at some point to reflect changes made to the Cooperative Joint Venture Law in 2000. Until then, the 1995 Cooperative Joint Venture Regulations are still in force. Cooperative joint ventures take one of two different forms: • a “pure” cooperative joint venture in which no legal entity
separate from the contracting parties is established and the parties make their contributions to the project and bear the risk of profit and loss directly; and
• a “hybrid” cooperative joint venture in which a separate business entity is established and registered and the parties’ liabilities are generally limited to their capital contributions to the entity.
Although the Cooperative Joint Venture Law does not explicitly distinguish between these two types of ventures, it provides that cooperative joint ventures that meet the relevant legal requirements may qualify as “legal persons” under Chinese
law. The Cooperative Joint Venture Regulations make further distinctions concerning the treatment of cooperative joint ventures with legal person status and those without. A hybrid form cooperative joint venture would generally qualify as a legal person, while a pure form cooperative joint venture would not.
Establishment
The documentation required for the establishment of a cooperative joint venture and the procedures for obtaining approval of the project are very similar to those outlined above with respect to equity joint ventures.
In the case of a cooperative joint venture, the examination and approval authority (generally MOFCOM or its local counterpart). The contract and articles of association become effective upon issuance of an approval certificate.
Parties’ contributions
One of the reasons many investors in the past have chosen to utilize a cooperative joint venture structure instead of an equity joint venture has been that the investors are able to make their contributions to the joint venture in forms other than those allowed for an equity joint venture.
The Chinese party to a cooperative joint venture might, for example, be made responsible for providing the required local labor, including the payment therefor. The Chinese party might also be responsible for providing the necessary factory or office facilities.
Relevant rules have become more restrictive in light of the issuance of the Cooperative Joint Venture Regulations. In some cases, it may not be permitted to count some of these forms of
assistance as joint venture contributions, although practice in this regard varies considerably. Foreign investors should focus on how to categorize and structure the parties’ contributions to a cooperative joint venture.
Unlike the case of an equity joint venture, a foreign party’s investment in a cooperative joint venture may be repatriated prior to the expiration of the term of the joint venture, if the joint venture contract provides that ownership of all of the fixed assets of the joint venture shall revert to the Chinese party upon expiration of the joint venture term. However, the methods by which early repatriation may be accomplished are limited, and careful planning is required before establishment of the cooperative joint venture.
Operation
Pure cooperative joint ventures will usually have a shorter term than equity joint ventures, while hybrid cooperative joint ventures may have longer terms similar to those of equity joint ventures. Cooperative joint ventures are favored for hotels and commercial complexes and in infrastructure projects where the parties intend that the joint venture assets will stay with the Chinese party at the end of the joint venture term. Cooperative joint ventures are also commonly used for projects where the Chinese partner lacks material assets to contribute to the joint venture. Cooperative joint ventures in manufacturing are generally discouraged. The operational activities of cooperative joint ventures are restricted in much the same way as those of equity joint ventures.
It is common for cooperative joint venture contracts, especially those of pure cooperative ventures, to provide for the reversion of all of the assets of the joint venture to the Chinese party
upon termination of the venture. In other cases, the liquidation procedures follow those applicable to equity joint ventures.
Foreign exchange
Cooperative joint ventures are generally subject to the same foreign exchange rules as equity joint ventures.
Profits
A substantial advantage of cooperative joint ventures is that the parties may agree on the distribution of profits at a ratio different from that of the parties’ capital contributions.
Financial administration
An accountant registered in the People’s Republic of China must be engaged to audit and verify accounts. The parties may engage the accountant jointly or individually. A cooperative joint venture without legal person status must keep unified account books, and the parties must, in addition, keep their own separate account books.
WHOLLY FOREIGN-OWNED ENTERPRISES
Legal status
Wholly foreign-owned enterprises (“WFOEs”) are entities established under the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprises (the “WFOE Law”) and the Detailed Implementing Rules for the WFOE Law (the “WFOE Regulations”). A WFOE can be a limited liability company or, upon approval, take another form. Currently, most WFOEs in China are established by one foreign investor, although the WFOE Regulations allow two or more foreign investors to apply jointly for the establishment of a WFOE.
Establishment
Under the existing system, the procedures for establishing WFOEs are similar to those for equity joint ventures. MOFCOM or its local counterpart is the examination and approval
authority. In certain cases, where the WFOE is engaged in certain business activities that require prior industry approval, e.g. advertising, transportation, then prior approval is required from the specific industry regulator.
The foreign investor is required to submit to the examination and approval authority the following documents:
• an application letter;
• a feasibility study for the investment project; • articles of association for the proposed WFOE; • the foreign investor’s certificate of incorporation;
• a letter of creditworthiness issued by the bank of the foreign investor;
• the name of the legal representative and director(s) of the WFOE; and
• other items designated by the examination and approval authority.
Typically, the examination and approval authority should announce its decision on the application within five to fifteen days after receiving the application.
Within thirty days after receiving approval, the foreign investor must register the new entity with the local bureau of the SAIC and obtain a business license.
Parties’ investments
As in the case of equity joint ventures, foreign investors’ capital contributions to a WFOE may be in the form of foreign currency, machinery, equipment, industrial property, proprietary technology or, upon approval, Renminbi profits derived from their other investments in China. Capital contributions are subject to the prescribed debt to equity ratios and restrictions on reduction or increase of registered capital applicable to equity joint ventures.
Operation
A WFOE is permitted to operate for the period provided for in its approval from the examination and approval authority. Requests for an extension of the term of operation must be submitted to this authority 180 days prior to expiry.
Under the WFOE Regulations and the Catalog for Guiding Foreign Investment in Industry (which is revised and amended from time to time), the establishment of WFOEs is prohibited in
certain industries, such as publishing, broadcasting and public utilities.
Foreign exchange
WFOEs are generally subject to the same foreign exchange controls as joint ventures.
Management
The daily operations of a WFOE will be controlled solely by its own management, and should not be subject to interference by the government when operating in accordance with its approved articles of association.
Financial administration
The accounting rules applicable to WFOEs are similar to those applicable to equity joint ventures. Accounting books and statements printed by WFOEs themselves must be written in Chinese. For those written in foreign languages, notes in Chinese must be included. Only Chinese registered accountants can verify annual accounting statements. Annual balance sheets and profit-and-loss statements must be submitted to the financial and tax authorities for the record. A WFOE must allocate at least 10% of after-tax profits to its statutory reserve fund for a certain number of years, whereas in equity joint ventures, the board of directors decides the proportion to be allocated to the reserve fund.
REPRESENTATIVE OFFICES
Legal status
Representative offices established in China by non-resident enterprises are regulated by several national regulations, as well as local policies, which supplement the national
regulations. In general, representative offices may not conduct direct business activities. A representative office is permitted only to make business contacts and render services on behalf of its head office. Personnel employed by the representative office of a non-resident enterprise should not sign contracts on behalf of either the non-resident enterprise or third parties.
Registration
Pursuant to a 2004 State Council decision, it is no longer necessary to obtain approval for establishment of the most common types of representative office. Instead, direct registration with the industry and commerce authorities is permitted. Some local registration authorities require an applicant company to submit application materials through designated agencies, and different registration authorities may require different documents.
Documents to be submitted generally include: • a registration form for the representative office;
• a registration form for each of the representative office’s foreign personnel (effective from 2010, a representative office can register a maximum of four representatives); • a letter of creditworthiness from the foreign company’s bank;
• copies of the foreign company’s incorporation certificate and business registration certificate.
Under new requirements, the foreign company’s incorporation documents and letter of creditworthiness will need to be notarized and “consularized” by the Chinese embassy in the home jurisdiction of the foreign company before submission. In addition to attending to the above registration, the non-resident enterprise must register the representative office and its foreign staff with the local tax bureau, and a number of other government departments including the public security bureau (for residence permits) and with the local customs authority (for importation of personal belongings).
Taxation
In a wide range of circumstances, the representative office of a non-resident enterprise will be subject to both enterprise income tax and business tax on the basis that its activities either generate revenue, or through attribution, may be
considered to generate revenue for the non-resident enterprise. The same rate of enterprise income tax that applies to equity joint ventures will generally apply to a representative office. Business tax is levied on gross revenue from the provision of certain categories of services and the assignment of certain assets. Where there is no evidence of actual revenue and costs, income and revenue can be imputed to the representative office for enterprise income tax and business tax purposes on a “cost-plus” or “deemed profit” basis.
In certain limited circumstances, a non-resident enterprise’s representative office may be eligible for an exemption from enterprise income tax and business tax, depending on the nature and extent of its activities.
DISTRIBUTION
Wholesaling and retailing
China’s policy on foreign investment has always emphasized manufacturing projects, particularly those that export. The activities open to foreign-invested enterprises are, however, expanding. One example is the opening up of China’s wholesale and retail sectors in recent years.
Foreign investment in wholesale and retail activities is governed by the Measures for the Administration of Foreign Investment in the Commercial Sector (the “Commercial Sector Measures”), which came into force on June 1, 2004. Promulgation of the Commercial Sector Measures represents partial fulfillment of China’s WTO obligations to open up its wholesale and retail sectors to foreign investment. Under the Commercial Sector Measures, foreign investors can establish 100% wholly foreign-owned wholesale or retail enterprises beginning on December 11, 2004. However, there is a cap of 49% foreign ownership when more than 30 stores are opened and the stores sell the following types of products sourced from different suppliers: books, newspapers, periodicals, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, mulching film, chemical fertilizers, grain, vegetable oil, sugar, cotton, etc. In addition to liberalizing equity restrictions, the Commercial Sector Measures lift all geographic restrictions on foreign-invested wholesale enterprises: such enterprises can be opened anywhere in China.
Foreign-invested wholesalers and retailers are permitted to engage in a fairly broad scope of activities. In addition to wholesaling, foreign-invested wholesalers are permitted to engage in commission agency (excluding auctioneering), the import and export of merchandise and related ancillary
services. Foreign-invested retailers are permitted to engage in retailing, the import of merchandise that they sell, sourcing and procurement of China-produced goods for export, tele-marketing, telephone tele-marketing, mail order sales, Internet sales, vending machine sales and related ancillary services. Some restrictions do remain however, for example, tobacco retailing is prohibited.
Franchise operations
China permits foreign investors to engage in franchising activities through wholly foreign-owned or joint venture commercial enterprises. Cross-border franchising is also permitted.
In order for a foreign investor or foreign-invested commercial enterprise to become a franchisor, the franchisor must have at least two directly-operated stores that have been operating for over one year.
Applications to establish a foreign-invested commercial
enterprise to engage in franchising activities must be submitted to the commerce authorities, and a specimen franchise contract must be submitted together with other application materials.
Direct selling
Pursuant to its WTO commitments, China liberalized foreign investment in wholesale and retail distribution away from a fixed location with the promulgation of the Regulations for the Administration of Direct Selling by the State Council and effective from December 1, 2005 (the “Direct Sales Regulations”). Following the promulgation of the Direct Sales Regulations, China issued implementing regulations to supplement various aspects of the Direct Sales Regulations.
At the same time as the promulgation of the Direct Sales Regulations, China issued the Regulations on the Prohibition of Pyramid Marketing, promulgated by the State Council and effective November 1, 2005 (the “Pyramid Marketing Prohibition Regulations”). The stated aims of the Pyramid Marketing Prohibition Regulations are to ban certain activities which are considered to be harmful to the society and business environment.
“Direct sales” is broadly defined as “a sales method whereby a direct selling enterprise recruits direct sellers, who market products directly to the ultimate consumers other than through a fixed place of business” (emphasis added). The Direct Sales Regulations restrict the products that can be sold using direct sales methods in two different ways. A direct sales enterprise may only sell products that were produced by itself or by its parent or holding company. Additionally, China has limited the overall scope of products that can be sold through direct sales. The Direct Sales Regulations impose a certain number of requirements on enterprises in China that intend to engage in direct sales in the PRC. The Direct Sales Regulations allow investors (both foreign and local) to expand the business scopes of existing PRC enterprises to include direct sales. MOFCOM is the issuing authority of the Direct Selling Permits. In order to apply for a Direct Sales Permit from MOFCOM, an applicant would have to submit a set of application documents. The application for the Direct Selling Permit must be submitted to MOFCOM through their provincial level counterpart where the applicant enterprise is registered. During the application process, MOFCOM will solicit the opinion of SAIC regarding the application before it decides whether to grant its approval.
IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN CHINA
There are several issues affecting imports and exports in China. These issues are described in the following sections below and should be considered when importing / exporting goods to / from China.
1.
Import and export rights
China’s implementation of its WTO commitment to grant import/export rights to foreign-invested enterprises has been controversial. However, a significant step forward was taken when China amended the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Foreign Trade (the “Foreign Trade Law”). The amendments replace the system of special, licensed import/export
companies with a registration system under which enterprises, other organizations or individuals may engage in import/export business after registering with the foreign trade authorities. To implement the new changes, MOFCOM issued the Measures for the Registration of Foreign Trade Operators (the “Registration Measures”) on June 24, 2004. Prior to introduction of the new registration system, joint ventures and WFOEs have generally only been authorized to import goods, materials and equipment for their own use and to export self-manufactured products. Now they should be able to obtain import/export rights for all types of product other than goods subject to state trading. However, it is important to note that import rights do not equal distribution rights. Even if a foreign-invested enterprise obtains import rights, it will not be able to sell the imports unless it also has distribution rights.
2.
Taxes affecting imports and exports
Imports and exports are subject to Customs duties, value-added tax. They may also be subject to consumption tax. Please refer to the chapter on “Taxation” for further details.
3.
Customs valuation
As part of China’s accession to the WTO, China committed to adopt the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (the “GATT Valuation Code”), which is reflected in the Measures of the PRC Customs for the Assessment and Determination of Dutiable Value of Import and Export Goods. The value of imported goods must be measured accurately in order to determine the amount of customs duty payable.
In general, all imported goods are appraised in accordance with the Transaction Value of the goods. However, where the Transaction Valuation is not an appropriate method of valuation (e.g. in related-party transactions where the special relationship affected price), the following valuation methodologies may be used: Transaction Value of Identical Goods; Transaction Value of Similar Goods; Deductive Value; Computed Value; and Derivative Value.
4.
Tariff classification
China adopts a commodity classification system based on the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (“HS”). Commodity classification determines the applicable customs duty rate, import / export licensing requirements, export refund rates, etc.
There are 97 different categories with detailed import and export duty rates for all goods and commodities. Both “general
rates” and “most favored nation rates” are shown for each category. Failure to provide an accurate HS Code will attract penalties and can impact the customs duty rate applied to imports. If this results in underpayment of customs duty, China Customs can penalize the importer for Duty evasion.
China Customs has adopted the six General Rules of Interpretation (“GRIs”) for classifying imports and exports.
5.
Customs declaration
A declaration to Customs must be made at the place of
importation within 14 days of entry into the country. Taxpayers for exports must submit a declaration to Customs at the place of exportation upon arrival of the goods at the Customs supervision and control zone at least 24 hours prior to loading. The duty payable will be calculated based on the product’s customs tariff classification and the dutiable value, and is payable to a designated bank within 15 days from the date of the Customs Duty Certificate(s). If payment is not made on time, taxpayers may be liable to daily late payment interest of 0.05% of the total amount of duties payable commencing from the due date, or additional penalties if payment is more than three months late. A taxpayer who is unable to pay customs duties on time due to the occurrence of a force majeure event or State adjustment of tax policies may defer payment for up to six months.
6.
Origin
Place of origin rules exist in order to implement two customs duty rates on import commodities, i.e. standard rate and preferential rate. If the imported product has been produced in two or more countries, the last country in which there has been substantial transformation to the product shall be deemed as its country of origin, as a general rule applicable to standard
Preferential custom duty rates, which are reduced rates, are applicable to imported goods that fall within the ambit of a free trade agreement. It is therefore important to ascertain the origin of the goods so as to know whether they are entitled to preferential treatment. Specific preferential rules are provided under the various Free Trade Agreements. In some instances, the rules are product-specific.
7.
Special custom zones
China has a number of different special custom zones that offer preferential customs and VAT treatment. These zones are specific geographical areas that are marked out and administered by Customs. They may be considered to be outside the Customs territory of China, but may be considered to be part of China Proper by other agencies. The preferential treatment that an enterprise established within the various zones may be different, and the type of activities permitted may also be different. Below is a table that lists the major types of special custom zones in China:
Processing Logistics Trading Exhibitions Export VAT Refunds Bonded Zones √ √ √ √ X Export Processing Zones √ X X X √ (domestic) X (imported) Bonded Logistics Zones X √ √ √ √ Bonded Logistic Centers (Type B) X √ √ X √ Bonded Port Zones √ √ √ √ √ Bonded Integrated Zones √ √ √ √ √
8.
Free trade agreements / preferential trade
agreements
China has signed numerous Free Trade Agreements (“FTAs”) with various countries, all providing customs duty concessions for imports into China, as well as according China originating exports to these countries at preferential import duty
rates. Importers / exporters should consider whether such agreements could be used to reduce the amount of customs duty paid. As of December 2009, the following FTAs are in force: • Association of Southeast Nations (“ASEAN”) - China FTA; • Asia Pacific Trade Agreement;
• China - Chile FTA; • China - Pakistan FTA; • China - New Zealand FTA; • China - Singapore FTA; • China - Peru FTA;
• Mainland and Hong Kong Close Economic Partnership Arrangement (“CEPA”); and
MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS
The Chinese regulatory framework for mergers and
acquisitions involving foreign investors has become increasingly sophisticated in recent years. The primary governing legislation is the Regulations on the Merger and Acquisition of Domestic Enterprises by Foreign Investors (“Foreign M&A Regulations”), which was last revised in June 2009 and is supplemented by a myriad of departmental rules governing specific industries or target groups.
General framework
Similar to the undertaking of green-field projects, foreign investors acquiring Chinese companies are subject to foreign investment restrictions, which are based on the classifications of industries into “encouraged”, “permitted”, “restricted” and “prohibited” categories. Such classifications, which are set forth in the Catalog for Guiding Foreign Investment (last revised in December 2007) affect the maximum percentage of foreign ownership allowed, as well as the level of Chinese government authorities from which approvals would be required. MOFCOM and the National Development and Reform Commission are the major Chinese agencies in-charge for foreign investment matters.
The Foreign M&A Regulations also introduced the concepts of “industries affecting national economic security” and “companies owning well-known trademarks and old Chinese trade names”, a change of control in which will require approval from central MOFCOM regardless of the transaction value. In other cases, the level of the approval authorities is determined by the transaction value or the total investment amount set for the target entity.
Equity acquisitions vs. asset acquisitions
A foreign investor can acquire equity in a wholly Chinese-owned enterprise and convert it into a foreign-invested enterprise. When assets, rather than equity, are acquired, it is necessary to establish a commercial presence in the PRC in order to use the assets for operational purposes. In these circumstances, a foreign-invested enterprise may be established prior to the acquisition or, in some circumstances, may be established as part of the acquisition process.
There are certain requirements applicable to both equity and asset acquisitions. For instance, the parties are required to have the value of the equity appraised before transfer. Prices considerably lower than the appraisal result are not permitted. The transaction price and the appraisal amount may not usually differ by more than 10%.
In comparison, asset acquisitions have some advantages over equity acquisitions. The foreign investor can pick and choose which parts of the PRC target company it wishes to buy. Generally, existing obligations, liabilities or restrictions of the PRC target company will remain the sole responsibility of the PRC target company. Asset acquisitions tend to be more complex than equity acquisitions since the transaction may involve the transfer of different categories of assets and liabilities, each carrying separate statutory requirements. In addition, if a new foreign-invested enterprise is to be established for the purpose of carrying out the asset acquisition, separate approval from the Chinese authorities will be required for its establishment. Finally, there may be tax considerations for the parties in relation to the transfer of assets, as asset acquisitions are taxable in the PRC.
Other specific target groups or acquisition means
Earlier implementation of the Foreign M&A Regulations by different local authorities has not been entirely consistent, because of ambiguities in the relevant provisions. MOFCOM has, through its guidelines issued in December 2008, clarified that neither equity acquisitions of, nor assets acquisitions from, foreign-invested enterprises is subject to the Foreign M&A Regulations. While it remains unclear as to what extent acquisitions using foreign-invested enterprises have tocomply with the Foreign M&A Regulations, in practice they are generally not subject to the additional requirements set forth therein.
If a purchaser wishes to acquire a foreign-invested enterprise, it may simply acquire the foreign parent of the target rather than the target itself. This form of acquisition is particularly suitable when the parent is a special purpose vehicle
established for the sole purpose of holding the foreign-invested enterprise. Offshore acquisitions are in many ways simpler and more convenient than direct acquisitions because Chinese approval requirements are normally avoided. However, the PRC tax authorities have tightened their scrutiny over offshore transactions that are deemed as trying to avoid PRC capital gains tax.
State-owned equity acquisitions
The PRC Enterprise State-owned Assets Law came into effect in May 2009 to regulate, among other things, the transfer of state-owned equity interests. Under this new law, equity transfers in state-owned enterprises generally are subject to approvals by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission (or its local counterparts). If a transfer will result
in the State losing majority control, approval from the People’s government at corresponding level would also be required. The transfers of state-owned equity interests (other than shares in listed companies) have to be conducted at government-affiliated equity exchanges by means of an open bidding process. The minimum transfer price has to be determined by reference to the appraised value. A commitment to maintain employees stability is often one of the qualifying requirements for interested bidders. On the other hand, any proposal relating to redeployment of employees requires approval from the workers congress of the target.
It is worth noting that many departmental rules issued by the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration
Commission or its predecessor prior to the promulgation of the new law continue to apply.
Acquiring PRC listed companies
Since 2006, foreign investors may directly acquire tradable shares of PRC listed companies by way of transfer, private placement or other legal means for medium- to long-term investments. Where the target shares are state-owned, sellers must publish key details of potential dispositions and invite interested buyers to submit acquisition proposals for selection.
Mergers
PRC laws recognize two forms of merger: “merger by
absorption” and “merger by new establishment.” A “merger by absorption” involves the absorption by one company of another pursuant to which the absorbed company is dissolved and its registered capital and assets merged into the surviving entity. In a “merger by new establishment,” each of the
pre-merger companies is dissolved and a new company established holding an aggregate of the pre-merger companies’ assets and registered capital.
Cross-border mergers are currently unavailable under PRC law, i.e. it is not possible to directly merge a foreign entity with a domestic company (including foreign-invested enterprises). As far as foreign investors are concerned, the only permissible forms of merger in China are between foreign-invested
enterprises and foreign-invested enterprises, or between foreign-invested enterprises and domestic companies. In practice, however, mergers are rarely seen and acquisitions are more common.
Recent developments
There are a number of interesting regulatory developments 2009 concerning mergers and acquisitions in China. For example, the rules allowing shareholders to use their equity interest or shares in PRC companies for capital contribution were issued in January 2009 followed by the long-awaited rules on tax treatments of M&A transactions and restructuring. These developments offer new possibilities for pre- or post-acquisition restructuring. Earlier in December 2008, the PRC banking regulator lifted the decades-old prohibition against Chinese banks extending loans for M&A transactions, and foreign investors can potentially benefit from it by using their Chinese subsidiaries as acquisition vehicles.
ANTITRUST AND COMPETITION LAWS
Legal framework
The basic law governing antitrust and competition issues in the PRC is the Anti-Monopoly Law (“AML”), which entered force on August 1, 2008. The AML is China’s first comprehensive competition law, applying to almost all sectors of the economy. The main features of the AML are:
• a merger filing system, requiring mergers and acquisitions, meeting specific financial thresholds, to be notified to the Ministry of Commerce Anti-Monopoly Bureau (“MOFCOM”) and approved prior to closing;
• a prohibition on monopoly agreements; and
• a prohibition on the abuse of a dominant market position. As the AML remains relatively new, its enforcement is rapidly evolving and the information contained in this section is therefore especially vulnerable to change.
Extraterritorial application
The AML applies to both (a) agreements and conduct within China; and (b) agreements and conduct outside China, where these have the effect of restricting competition in the Chinese market.
Enforcement agencies
The Anti-Monopoly Enforcement Agency (“AEA”) is responsible for coordinating enforcement, delegated in turn to three agencies: • MOFCOM is responsible for merger control filings and
• the Department of Price Supervision of the National Development and Reform Commission (“NDRC”) is responsible for pricing-related infringements; and
• the Law Enforcement Bureau for Anti-Monopoly and Unfair Competition of the State Administration of Industry and Commerce (“SAIC”) is in charge of enforcing non-price-related infringements.
Among the three authorities within the AEA, both SAIC and NDRC have provincial level counterparts who are permitted to investigate infringements and enforce the AML.
Merger filings – when are they required?
Filing thresholdsThe AML requires transactions qualifying as “concentrations” to be notified to MOFCOM where, in their last completed accounting year:
• each of at least two “relevant business operators” generated at least RMB 400 million (US$58.5 million) in revenues from sales in or into China (excluding Hong Kong and Macao); and • all the “relevant business operators” have aggregate
revenues exceeding either RMB 10 billion (US$1.46 billion) globally or RMB 2 billion (US$292.8 million) generated from sales in or into China (excluding Hong Kong and Macao). Higher specific thresholds exist for banks, insurance companies and other financial institutions.
Transactions between related parties, such as reorganizations taking place entirely within a corporate group, are expressly exempted from the AML filing obligation.
It is worth noting that:
• the thresholds can be met through imports into China alone – no Chinese assets or presence are needed;
• an AML filing will be required regardless of whether a transaction takes place in China or offshore;
• transactions that are closed without filing in China, despite meeting the thresholds above, expose both the acquirer and the seller to substantial penalties (see “Penalties” below); and
• even if the thresholds set out above are not met, MOFCOM has the ability to require a filing to be made, either before or after closing. MOFCOM has stated that this will only occur where a substantial negative impact on competition.
“Relevant business operators”
The “relevant business operators” will typically be (1) the acquiring entity and its entire corporate group; and (2) the businesses or companies being acquired, including any affiliates or subsidiaries they control. The seller will not, in most cases, be regarded as relevant. Where there are two or more acquirers, the revenues of each acquirer will usually be relevant.
“Concentration”
“Concentration” is a wide term, covering not just acquisitions of complete or majority control, but also acquisitions of substantial minority stakes, as well as assets-based acquisitions, where the acquirer gains rights amounting to “decisive influence” over a business for the purposes of the AML.
“Decisive influence” is also a wide concept, usually including the right to appoint one or more directors or core management personnel, and obtaining veto rights over matters such as the budget, sales and operations decisions.
Joint ventures
Formations of joint ventures and substantial changes to their ownership will usually give rise to a “concentration”, with the “relevant business operators” being the parents to the joint venture and their corporate groups, as well as the joint venture itself. The position in relation to entirely new, “green field” joint ventures is less clear, and guidance should be sought before proceeding.
Merger filings – procedure
Filings are detailed, and transactions may not be closed until MOFCOM has completed its review and issued a clearance decision. This applies even in cases raising no competition issues - there is no “short form” filing or “fast track” review process. It is therefore important to address this issue early. Once a filing is received, MOFCOM will review the filing and either declare it complete or request further information or clarification. The formal review timetable does not commence until the filing has been declared complete.
The formal process begins with a 30 day “Phase 1” review. Others are referred for a more detailed, 90 day “Phase 2” review. At the end of Phase 2, transactions are either cleared (with or without conditions) or prohibited. Where the parties ask for more time, or there are significant changes to the transaction during the course of MOFCOM’s review, there may be a further 60 day “Phase 3” review period.
During the review process, MOFCOM will consult with competitors, suppliers, customers and relevant industry
associations. Where objections are raised, parties may need to make additional submissions to MOFCOM, either in writing or in person.
To date, around 5% of filings have resulted in a conditional clearance. The conditions imposed can be wide-ranging, requiring the disposal of businesses both within and outside China. Behavioral conditions can also be imposed, for
example requiring parties to refrain from further acquisitions in a particular sector, or to maintain separation between the acquirer and the businesses being acquired.
Prohibition on monopoly agreements
The AML prohibits “monopoly agreements”. These are
defined as agreements, decisions or other concerted practices between business operators that have the purpose or effect of eliminating or restricting competition.
The following monopoly agreements between competing business operators are prohibited:
• agreements to fix or change the price of goods;
• agreements to restrict the quantity of goods produced or sold;
• agreements to divide a sales market or a raw materials procurement market;
• agreements to restrict the purchase of new technology or new equipment, or to restrict the development of new technology or new products; and
The AML also expressly prohibits direct or indirect attempts by a supplier to impose fixed or minimum resale prices on customers.
The AEA is empowered to define further types of monopoly agreement, which can be between competitors or
non-competitors. Draft SAIC rules suggest that exclusive supply and purchasing commitments, as well as the exclusive allocation of geographic or customer-based territories by suppliers to distributors, may be viewed as monopoly agreements unless justified.
Exemption from the prohibition
The prohibitions on horizontal and vertical monopoly
agreements are not applicable if the parties are able to prove that:
• the agreements would not seriously restrict competition in the relevant market; and
• consumers can share the benefits resulting from these agreements; and
• one of a list of specified goals are met. These include technological advancement and/or product development, improvements in overall product quality, increases in efficiency, and reduction in costs.
There is no mechanism under the AML which would allow parties to apply in advance for a formal ruling that a given case falls within an exemption. Parties to agreements are therefore expected to self-assess whether an agreement, if later
Prohibition on abuse of dominant market position
The AML defines a “dominant market position” as the ability of one or more business operators to control the price or quantity of goods in a relevant market or to otherwise affect conditions of a transaction, so as to hinder or influence the ability of other business operators to enter into the market.
When is a business operator dominant?
This is often a complex analysis based on a number of criteria, including market share, control over the market, financial and technical resources and barriers to market entry.
Under the AML, a dominant market position is presumed to exist where one, two, or three business operators achieve combined market shares of 50%, 66%, or 75% respectively. However, if any of the operators has a market share of less than 10%, or can produce evidence to rebut the presumptions, then that operator will not be assumed to have a dominant market position.
Types of conduct prohibited
A dominant market position is not, in itself, unlawful. It is only the abuse of such a dominant market position that raises issues. The AML prohibits the following types of conduct by business operators occupying a dominant market position: • selling goods at prices that are unfairly high or purchasing
goods at prices that are unfairly low;
• without a legitimate reason, selling goods at below cost price;
• without a legitimate reason, refusing to deal with a business operator;
• without a legitimate reason, restricting a trading partner by requiring it to deal only with the dominant operator(s) or with other designated operators;
• without a legitimate reason, tying goods or attaching other unreasonable conditions to a transaction; and
• without a legitimate reason, treating equivalent trading partners in a discriminatory manner with respect to price or other trading conditions.
This list is not exhaustive, and the AEA is empowered to define further abuses. As with monopoly agreements, more detailed rules are in the process of being drafted and published.
Penalties
For anti-competitive agreements and conduct, fines of up to 10% of the total turnover in the preceding year can be levied, plus confiscation of illegal income resulting from the agreement or conduct. In addition, agreements that violate the AML are automatically invalid. Cease and desist orders can also be issued in respect of anti-competitive behaviour.
For failure to make a merger filing, or closing a transaction before clearance is granted, fines of up to RMB 500,000
(US$73,000) are available, plus the ability for MOFCOM to order the annulment or unwinding of the transaction.
Procedure
Rules have been published setting out how investigations are conducted. These include basic details of a “leniency” program, which rewards those confessing illegal conduct or agreements with either full or partial immunity from fines.
Litigation
In addition to administrative enforcement, the AML allows customers, competitors and third parties to bring civil damages claims against any business that has caused them to suffer loss by engaging in a monopoly agreement or abusing its dominant market position.
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY PROTECTION
China is a member of the WTO and consequently a party to all the major intellectual property conventions of that organization as well as to others (these include the Paris Convention, Patent Cooperation Treaty, Berne Convention, Universal Copyright Convention, Geneva Convention and Madrid Agreement on International Registration of Marks).
Patents
The Patent Law of the People’s Republic of China (the “Patent Law”) was amended in December 27, 2008. The revision came into effect on October 1, 2009 and is expected to be supplemented in 2010 with revised Implementing Regulations. The amendments introduce key changes into the system which merit the attention of patent owners.
The Patent Law and its Implementing Regulations adopt a “first-to-file” rather than “first-to-invent” system, i.e. a system similar to Europe’s rather than that of the US. There are three types of patent: patents for inventions of 20 years duration; utility models; and design patents of ten years duration. The system is compliant with the WTO Agreement on Trade-related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (“TRIPs”), with Paris Convention priority. This means that if a patent application for an invention or utility model patent is first filed in another Convention-member country within 12 months before the filing date in China, the prior filing date will be regarded as the priority date in China. In the case of design patent applications, the relevant period is six months.
The Patent Law grants protection to inventions, utility models and designs. This includes pharmaceutical products and substances obtained by means of a chemical process. An
invention comprises any new technical solution regarding a product or process that is capable of practical use. Design relates to any new shape or pattern a product or to the combination of the colors, shape and pattern thereof that creates an aesthetic feeling and that is suitable for industrial application.
The new Patent Law tightens the criteria for patenting designs to combat “junk” design patents. To enjoy protection, designs will have to possess “obvious distinctions” from either the prior art or combinations of prior art features. The patenting of two-dimensional designs will be prohibited where the graphics or colors or their combination are mainly used as indications of source.
Inventions are protected for twenty years from the application filing date. Utility models and industrial designs are accorded ten years protection. The patentability of business method software patents is unclear and obtaining protection is difficult. Foreign applicants are required to submit patent applications in China through an officially designated patent agent and should not submit directly to the Patent Office. International applicants may be granted a Chinese patent only after an applicant has carried out relevant procedures in the PRC Patent Office. A patent applicant whose application is rejected by the Patent Office may request a re-examination by the Patent Review Board (“PRB”). The decision of the PRB may be appealed to a People’s Court.
Under the revised Patent Law, inventions that are completed in the PRC need to be filed first in China or go through a security review in China before filed overseas. Parties that fail to do so risk losing their patent rights.
In addition, the revised Patent Law expands the definition of “prior art” to include any technologies or designs that are known to the public inside or outside China before the application date.
The right to apply for patents in relation to inventions, utility models or designs lies in the first instance with the inventor but this is subject to contractual provisions to the contrary. Where inventions, utility models or designs are created as a result of carrying out employment duties or primarily by using the materials and resources of an employer, the right to apply for the patent belongs to the employer. The right to apply for patents in relation to inventions or designs unrelated to employment belongs to the inventors or designers. As in other jurisdictions, characterizing the scope of employment is crucial in determining patent rights. The Patent Law further states that in cases where inventions or designs are created as a result of using the material resources of the employer, if the employer and the employee have entered into a contract stipulating ownership of the patent application rights and patent rights, the contract will prevail.
The revised Patent Law imposes a new basis for rejecting patent applications that warrants close attention by patent owners that are accustomed to relying on continuation or continuation-in-part filing strategies. Prior applications for similar technology or designs filed by any party, including the same applicant, will in the future be deemed conflicting.
From the date a patent is granted, any party may apply to the PRB to invalidate the patent on the grounds that its grant does not comply with the Patent Law. The PRB’s decision in an invalidation application may be judicially reviewed.
Patent infringement occurs when aspects of a product fall within the scope of the protected claims of a patented item. The time limit for patentees to file infringement actions is two years from the date the patentee becomes aware or should have become aware of the infringing activity. Infringement suits may be brought either through the People’s Courts or through local Patent Management Bureaus. Administrative decisions may be appealed, however, to the People’s Courts. As an interim measure, the patent owner may request the court to issue orders for preservation of property and/or preservation of evidence. Security must be provided with the application. The Patent Law stipulates that compensation for patent infringement should be calculated by reference to the loss suffered by the patent owner or the gain reaped by the infringer as a result of the infringement. If the patent owner’s loss or the infringer’s gain is difficult to calculate, one to three times the relevant reasonable patent license fee may be considered. The revised Patent Law additionally provides that the patent owner is entitled to claim back reasonable expenditures incurred as a result of any actions taken to stop infringement. It also raised the amount of damages the court can award in situations where the license fee is difficult to determine. The maximum statutory amount previously set at RMB 500,000 was raised to RMB 1,000,000.
The revised law permits two categories of acts which previously would have been regarded as patent infringement. Parallel importing has essentially been legalized. A new “Bolar Exemption” which allows the manufacture, use and import of patented pharmaceutical products or medical devices to obtain regulatory approval has also been introduced.
In addition, the new law added provisions on compulsory licensing, mainly to codify existing Chinese rules and to
ensure compliance with China’s obligations under the TRIPS Agreement of the WTO.
As in Europe, various forms of compulsory license may be applied for in certain cases, such as non-exploitation of a patent or national emergency, but all are subject to payment of license fees to the patentee as stipulated by the Patent Office.
Trademarks
The PRC Trademark Law imposes a strict first-to-file rule for obtaining trademark rights whereby the first party to file for registration of a mark pre-empts later applicants. Prior use of an unregistered mark is generally irrelevant unless the mark in question is well-known and therefore protected either under the Paris Convention or pursuant to the Trademark Law and its Implementing Regulations. An application for trademark registration must be filed with the Trademark Office of the State Administration for Industry and Commerce (“SAIC”).
After a trademark registration application has been granted preliminary approval by the Trademark Office, it will be
published in the PRC Trademark Gazette. The PRC Trademark Office will publish an announcement in the Trademark Gazette and issue a registration certificate if no opposition is filed within the statutory three-month opposition period.
Trademark law provides that any “visually perceptible” sign capable of distinguishing the goods of one natural person, legal person or other organization from those of another may qualify for registration as a trademark. The sign may take the form of words, figures, letters, numbers, three-dimensional signs, color combinations or a combination of any of these elements. Collective marks and certification marks may be registered as trademarks in the PRC.
A trademark registration is valid for ten years from the final date of approval (i.e. upon expiration of the three-month opposition period or that date of filing for international
trademark registrations extended to the PRC under the Madrid Agreement or the Madrid Protocol), with further ten-year renewal terms available.
Trademark owners pursuing oppositions and cancellations may seek formal recognition of their marks as “well-known” (chi ming), thereby aiding in attempts to block others from registering similar marks covering dissimilar goods or services. However, determinations on well-known status are made on a case-by-case basis. An interpretation issued by the Supreme People’s Court allows the court to formally recognize the well-known status of a mark during a civil dispute.
Where a PRC-registered trademark is assigned, the assignor and assignee must execute an application which must be filed for approval with the Trademark Office. Upon approval, the assignment will be gazetted. Legal title to the registration is not deemed to pass until the assignment has been approved by the Trademark Office.
The Trademark Law requires a trademark registrant to enter into a written license contract when licensing a PRC-registered trademark to third parties. Trademark license contracts must be submitted to the Trademark Office for recordal in the name of the licensor. Currently, there are no penalties for failure to record a trademark license.
Preliminary injunctions are available in trademark infringement cases brought before civil courts, including the issuance of injunctions and seizure of evidence by judicial authorities. Statutory damages up to RMB 500,000 are possible in cases where the plaintiff’s damage or the infringer’s profits cannot
be determined. Administrative enforcement authorities and civil courts are authorized to confiscate and destroy infringing products and trademark representations and the equipment used to make them.
The maximum fines that may be imposed against infringers are three times the infringer’s “illegal business amount” (turnover). The Implementing Regulations also provide for discretionary fines up to RMB 100,000 in cases where it is “difficult to ascertain the illegal business amount.”
There may be criminal liability if the value of the counterfeited goods exceeds certain thresholds. At the time of writing where the value exceeds RMB 50,000 the matter will be regarded as serious and criminal liability will be constituted.
In 2006 the Supreme People’s Court issued guidelines
recognizing the principle that a landlord may be liable for the counterfeiting activities of his or her tenants. The principle was formulated following investigations into counterfeiting activities at the infamous Silk Markets in Beijing.
Copyright
The Copyright Law of the People’s Republic of China (the “Copyright Law”), amended with effect from October 27, 2001, and its Implementing Regulations, amended with effect from September 15, 2002, attempt to bring China’s copyright regime closer to full compliance with TRIPs.
The revised Copyright Law introduces protection for architectural works, graphic works, model works, and databases, i.e. original compilations of works or information that do not qualify for protection under copyright. The
and sound recordings produced or distributed by foreigners and stateless persons. Likewise, protection is explicitly recognized for rights in radio and television programs broadcast by foreign radio and television stations.
In compliance with Article 3 of the Berne Convention (1971), the Implementing Regulations clarify that works created by a foreigner or stateless person that are published in China within 30 days after first publication outside China will be deemed to have been simultaneously published in China. Under the old Implementing Regulations, such works were regarded as having been first published in China.
Registration is not a precondition to copyright enforcement but may be helpful as evidence of ownership in enforcement actions.
The Implementing Regulations require exclusive license
agreements to be in writing, and they also provide for voluntary recordal of licenses, as well as assignments. The restriction in earlier law that copyright licenses be limited to ten years has been removed. The amended Law specifically permits the full or partial assignment of economic rights in copyright subject matter.
The revised Law introduces strengthened provisions on the enforcement of copyright through civil and administrative measures. Preliminary injunctions may now be sought against copyright infringers. In cases where the plaintiff’s damage or the infringer’s profits cannot be determined, statutory damages up to RMB 500,000 may be awarded. The National Copyright Administration and local copyright bureaus, the primary government bodies designated to handle administrative enforcement against infringers, are explicitly authorized under the revised Law to exercise a wide range of powers. These
