Chapter 21, Section 1
Spain's Empire and European Absolutism
From the years of 1520 to 1566, King Suleiman I fist exercised great amounts of power as the king of the Ottoman Empire. Only one European monarch, Charles V, was able to match Suleiman I's power. Charles V was the king of Spain, and also ruled over Spanish colonies of Italy, Austria, and the Netherlands. He was also elected the Holy Roman Emperor, and ruled much of Germany. He was the first monarch to rule this much land since Charlemagne1.
Spain's Powerful Empire
As a devout Roman Catholic, Charles V not only fought the Muslims but also the Lutherans. In 1555, Charles V unwillingly signed the Peace of Augsburg. The following year, Charles V divided his empire and retired to a monastery, where he lived out the rest of his days:
• Charles V's brother, Ferdinand, received the Holy Roman Empire and Austria.
• Charles V's son, Philip II2, inherited Spain, the Netherlands, and the American colonies.
Like his father, Philip II was deeply religious and was, at times, very aggressive. When the king of Portugal died with no heir apparent heir in 1580, Philip, who was the king's nephew, added Portugal to his territory. Along with Portugal came all of the territory that it held in Africa, India, and the East Indies, this Spanish Empire now covered all hemispheres. Philip II's lands brought immense amounts of wealth back to Spain:
• American mines ushered in ore and precious stones
• spices were imported from the Far East and India
• slaves were imported from the African coast
During Philip II's reign, Europe was still during the reformation3 and persecution, but this was not new
to Spain. The Reconquista, which was a campaign to drive Muslims out of Spain, was completed a mere 64 years ago. Philip II's grandparents were Ferdinand and Isabella, who led the Spanish
Inquisition to kick the Jews out of Spain as well. As the heir to the throne, Philip thought that it was his job to continue defending Catholicism against the Protestants and the Ottoman Muslims. In 1571, the pope called for a war against the Ottoman Empire, and Philip II was among the first to respond. Despite the massive setback of the SpanishArmada4, which was a fleet of ships embarrassingly defeated by the
English, the Spanish continued to thrive and prosper.
Although much of Spain's wealth went into their army and to the throne, it also allowed the noble class of Spain to become very enthusiastic patrons of the arts. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, Spain experienced their own Renaissance. Two of the most famous Spanish painters typified life during this time:
• El Greco was born on Crete, but spent much of his life in Spain. El Greco was very good at abstract art, and his art often puzzled his contemporaries. His art was also deeply rooted in Catholicism.
• Diego Velazquez was another Renaissance painter who, in contrast with El Greco, showed the majesty of the Spanish monarchy. This is what he is best known for.
• The publication of Don Quixote de la Mancha in 1605 is considered the “first modern European novel.” The author, Miguel de Cervantes, wrote the book to mock chivalry and to promote his own idea of an idealistic person.
Problems Weaken the Spanish Empire
The Renaissance in Spain was very materialistic. The flow of gold and silver made Spain temporarily wealthy, but this soon caused long-term economic problems for Spain.
Inflation was the first of these problems. It had to main causes:
• Spain's growing population
• the value of silver and gold dropped, since there was so much of it
Spain also expelled the Muslims and the Jews, who were skilled craftsmen and merchants. Spanish nobles were exempt from paying taxes, and as such, this burden fell upon the lower classes. As taxes hiked, these people could no longer fund their businesses and went broke. As a result, Spain never really developed a middle class.
Guilds5 that had emerged in the Middle Ages still dominated Spanish businesses. The methods that
these guilds were considered (by everyone else) to be outdated and old-fashioned. Spanish goods were more expensive than they were elsewhere. As a result, Spain was forced to buy their goods from
countries who were usually their enemies, such as France and the Netherlands. As quickly as the money was flowing in, it was flowing out just as quickly — into the pockets of Spain's enemies. Spain was often at war, and borrowed money from Italian and German banks. This created a huge debt for Spain. The Spanish economy was so weak that Philip II declared the country to be bankrupt three times during his regime.
Philip II had to keep his army mobilized in the Netherlands to prevent rebellion in that territory. Despite Spain, who controlled it, was Catholic, there were very large Calvinist populations in the Netherlands. In addition, the Dutch had a thriving economy while Spain's was crumbling. Philip began taxing the citizens of the Netherlands very heavily, causing a revolt. The north declared independence in 1579, ultimately forming the Netherlands. The southern provinces remained part of Spain.
The independent Dutch Prosper
The United Provinces of the Netherlands, as they were formally called, were different form other European countries.
• Religious toleration was practiced there, and anyone was free to practice whatever religion they chose.
• They were not a kingdom, but a republic. Each province had an elected governor who depended on the middle class for support.
This stable form of government allowed the Dutch to focus on developing their economy. Merchants in Amsterdam their grain from Poland and stored it in warehouses. They sold their goods to poorer
economies, which made them lots of money. By 1636, the Dutch had the largest fleet in Europe, consisting of over 4,800 ships.
During the seventeenth century, the Netherlands became what Florence was during the fourteenth century. It had a banking system, and boasted the best artists in Europe:
• Rembrandt van Rijn was a painter who specialized in portraits of middle-class merchants who
could afford this luxury. He was very attentive to detail and individuality in his paintings. Each figure he painted was distinct and different from the next. He also used sharp contrast in colors to catch people's eyes.
• Jan Vermeer was another famous Dutch artist. He specialized in indoor settings, and unlike can Rijn, Vermeer did not become particularly well-known until the nineteenth century.
Absolutism in Europe
Even though Philip II lost the Netherlands, he was still a very powerful person. During the following centuries, many other monarchs would claim to rule with absolute power. These rulers, who believed that they had the power to control everything inside their boundaries were called absolute monarchs. Absolute monarchs believed that they had the divine right, or permission from God, to rule. As such, they would only answer to God, not to their subjects. These ideas were not new to this time period. Ancient monarchs were generally absolute monarchs. One perfect example is the Caesar family, and another would be the Church in medieval Western Europe.
As Europe left the Middle Ages, monarchs became increasingly powerful. The decline in feudalism and the rise in cities helped centralize authority, giving the monarchs even more power. The middle class usually supported the monarchs, who gave them an opportunity to develop their trades and become wealthy. Monarchs usually used the wealth that they obtained from their colonies and taxes to pay for their endeavors. In addition, the Church, which was very influential in the Middle Ages, became less powerful in the Renaissance. (The Church actually blocked some kings from becoming powerful. Now, without the Church, they had virtually no outside threat.)
Chapter 21. Section 2 France’s Ultimate Monarch
Henry IV begins the process of absolutism by centralizing the monarchy.
• He begins to repair the broken economy (that was destroyed during the Hundred Years’ War.)
• He also issued the Edict of Nantes, which declared religious toleration to all Protestants.
• He rebuilt the French infrastructure (ex: roads)
He instituted a bureaucracy. Henry IV was assassinated in 1610, and was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII. Who was really in charge, however, was Cardinal Richelieu, who was called “Machiavellian,” since he was very tricky. He worked very hard to give the king as much power as possible:
• He put down the various rebellions by Huguenots. (The Huguenots were allowed, under the Edict of Nantes, were allowed to have their own armies, causing a rebellion.) He did not, however, persecute the Protestants.
• Richelieu dramatically decreased the power of the nobles. All nobles were ordered to take down their castles. (This theme of fortification was an idea that Richelieu tried to destroy, since it could lead to a rebellion.)
• He gave many government jobs to middle class citizens. This took the nobles out of the power loop, and, effectively, made them virtually useless.
• In addition to domestic policy, Richelieu also instituted foreign policy by getting France into the Thirty Years' War. What Richelieu wanted most was to maintain a balance of power, so that not one single group should have too much power. (This included monarchs, nobles, and middle class citizens.) To do this, Richelieu had to get help from the Protestants, whose lives he previously made miserable. Richelieu was able to put aside religion for politics.
It was Louis XIII’s successor, Louis XIV, who ultimately completed this goal. Louis XIV moved the capital from Paris, about 10 miles from Paris (the capital) and built a new palace in a new place. This way, Versailles was built to his specifications. He required the entire noble class to live in Versailles, which kept them under his complete control. However, Louis XIV would have to pay for this massive castle, entertain his nobles, feed them, and support them, which ultimately caused the royal family to go bankrupt. (Through this, Louis XIV made a sort of cult, where nobles were virtually servants to the king, performing menial tasks such as bathing the king or putting a wig on his head every morning.) The king called the Estates General (the French version of Parliament), but this met opposition by the nobles. They decided on a deal:
• The king has absolute power (leaving the nobles completely powerless)
• The king would not call the Estates General and pass new taxes. He could also not pass taxes over the nobility.
Louis XIV also instituted the first standing army, which was already prepared for war. They were paid, fed, housed, and overall supported by the government. (Previously, the had to support themselves.) Louis XIV also instituted army rankings. This accomplished several goals:
• This created many jobs for the French
• This army was much more efficient
• Because they were being paid by the government, they did not have to find their own money (by looting or taking war spoils).
What ultimately causes Louis XIV’s downfall is the unwinding of power. Louis XIV had no heirs, but left the kingdom to his grandson. They were related to the king of Spain, which meant that they might unite and take down the balance of power. A coalition of countries fought a war against France called
Chapter 21, Section 3
Central European Monarchs Clash
For a brief period of time, the rulers of the various provinces in Germany had worked out their religious differences with one another through the Peace of Augsburg6. Each prince would decide the denomination of religion for his own province.
The Thirty Years' War
The peace was short-lived, and soon, a war developed. Each province tried to gain religious followers and convert them either to Catholicism or Lutheranism (but not Calvinism). As everything grew tense, the Lutherans joined the Protestant Union in 1608. In 1609, the Catholic princes joined together to form the Catholic League. In 1618, the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand II, was head of the Hapsburg family, and ruled over Bohemia. A revolution sprung when Ferdinand II closed several Protestant churches. The Protestant Princes used this as an excuse to start a war against the Holy Roman Empire This began the Thirty Years' War, which lasted from 1618 to 1648. It was fought for three main causes:
• religion
• territory
• power among ruling families
Historians typically divide it into two main parts: the part where the Hapsburg family won and the part where they lost. During the first twelve years of the war, the Hapsburg armies from Spain and Austria (both Catholic countries) succeed in putting down the rebellion in the Czech Republic, as well as defeated the Protestant Princes who had sided with the Protestants during the rebellion. As a result of the victory, Ferdinand II paid his army by letting them plunder and loot to their hearts' delight. In 1630, though, a Swedish Protestant named Gustavus Adolphus and his army of 13,000 turned the tables, but Adolphus was killed in battle two years later. It was Cardinal Richelieu7 and Cardinal Mazarin of
France who ultimately finished the war. Despite being Catholic, these two cardinals sided with the Protestants. They wanted other kings in Europe to have the same amount of power as the French king. In 1635, Richelieu sent French troops to aid the Swedish and German Protestants.
The Thirty Years' War was devastating to Germany:
• Its population dropped by about 4 million.
• Trade and agriculture were disrupted; Germany's economy was in shambles
It was a treaty called the Peace of Westphalia that was signed in 1648 that ended the war, but with came important consequences:
• It weakened the Hapsburg states of Spain and Austria
• France was strengthened and was given German territory
• It ended all religious wars in Europe.
• It was the first recorded instance of peace negotiations
The Peace of Westphalia ended the dream that Catholicism would one day rule all of Europe. It recognized each state independently that could negotiate with each other at their will. The end of the Thirty Years War spelled the beginning of modern state system.
Central Europe Differs from the West
The formation of strong states was a slow process in central Europe. The three major empires at the time were the Polish kingdom, the Holy Roman Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. None of these,
however, were very well-organized.
One reason for the lack of organization of the kingdoms in central Europe were very different. While Western Europe had left the Middle Ages, the serfs, and feudalism when they entered the Renaissance. In contrast, central Europe had a landowning noble class who kept a careful eye on the serfs so that they should not escape (like they did in Western Europe). The nobles wanted the serfs to stay and work the land to ultimately bring in large harvests. This would let them sell the surplus and become even wealthier. By 1700, a Polish serf worked as much as six days a week for his lord, leaving only one day to tend to his own crops. These landowning lords not only blocked serfs from leaving but also blocked development of kings and centralized government. Not only was a Polish king elected by the nobles, but they severely limited his power. The king could not:
• have a large income comparable to the nobles
• have a standing army
• have any courts of law (each cased would be decided by the lord of the estate)
Even the two largest empires of central Europe were very weak. Suleiman the Magnificent could not conquer anything in Europe beyond Austria, causing the power of the Ottoman Empire to slowly begin to decline. In addition, the Holy Roman Empire was very weak due to the Thirty Years' War. No longer being able to command the German states, the Holy Roman Emperor had no real power. The lack of power created a political vacuum, but in the late seventeenth century, two German families remedied the problem.
One of these families was the Hapsburg family of Austria. Despite being crushed during the Thirty Years' War, Austria remained the Holy Roman Empire's wealthiest and most important state. The Austrian Hapsburg family took several steps to become absolute monarchs:
• they reconquered Bohemia
• they wiped out Protestantism from the Czech Republic and subsequently created a new noble class who swore loyalty to them
• they centralized the government and created a standing army
• they reconquered Hungary from the Ottoman Empire
In 1711, Charles VI became a Hapsburg king. By now, the Holy Roman Empire had become difficult to rule. It was home a very diverse population (Hungarians, Italians, and Czechs, to name a few). The only thing that kept the kingdom together was the fact that the Hapsburg king wore the Austrian, Hungarian, and Bohemian crowns simultaneously. Still, it was very difficult to control an empire so diverse. Charles VI spent nearly his entire time as king trying to find the answer to the problem. Through various diplomatic and military tactics, Charles VI convinced the kings of Europe to recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa, as ruler. Despite this, however, Maria Theresa faced years of endless war. Her main enemy was Prussia, a new country just north of Austria.
Prussia and Austria Clash
80,000 men. To pay for this massive army, he imposed permanent taxation over everybody. His son assumed the title of king and began a dynasty. The nobility (called the Junkers), however, were very resistant to the idea of a king. However, in the early eighteenth century, King Fredrick William Ibribed them for their cooperation. He gave them the exclusive right to be officers in his army, and slowly, Prussia became a very rigidly controlled military-based society. Fredrick William I was succeeded by his son, Fredrick II. (Fredrick II had a very hard childhood. Growing up, he loved the humanities, and to toughen him up, his father forced Fredrick II to watch his friend being beheaded because the two ran away together.) Fredrick II, nicknamed Fredrick the Great, continued his father's military policies, but he was less strict in the lass that were passed (even softened some of the laws that his father instituted).
In 1740, Maria Theresa succeeded her father just five months after Fredrick II assumed the throne. The two started a war over a piece of land called Silesia, famous for its ore and textiles. Allied with Britain, Maria Theresa was able to stop the war, but ultimately lost Silesia in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that was signed in 1748.
Having decided that France was no longer a threat to Austria, Maria Theresa made an alliance with them, causing Fredrick to sign a treaty with England. Maria Theresa also formed alliances with Russia (which was, for the first time, becoming involved in foreign affairs). In 1756, Fredrick II attacked Saxony, an Austrian ally, beginning the Seven Years' War. It was fought mainly in India and North America, where both countries held land.
Chapter 21, Section 4
Russian Czars Increase Power
Ivan III ruled Moscow from 1462 to 1505, and accomplished several things that greatly benefited Russia. First, he conquered Russia back from the Mongols. He also expanded Russia's territory. Third, the centralized the Russian government, thereby laying the basis for an absolute monarchy that would come much later.
From Ivan to the Romanovs
Ivan III was succeeded by his son, Vasily, who continued his father's work and extended Russia's borders even further and continued on working on a centralized government. He was succeeded by his son, Ivan IV, sometimes called Ivan the Terrible. Ivan III took the throne in 1533, when he was only three years old, and had a very long struggle against the boyars, or the Russian nobility. When he was 16, Ivan IV took complete control of the throne and crowned himself czar of Russia. The years from 1547-1560 are called the “good period” of Ivan's reign, whereas from 1560 to the end of his rein was considered the “bad” period of Ivan's reign. He accused the boyars of poising his wife, Anastasia, and subsequently turned against them. He organized his own police force whose main job was to hunt down and execute anyone considered by the czar to be a rebel. Ivan III confiscated their land and gave it to a new class of nobles who could either swear complete loyalty to him or lose their land. Eventually, Ivan III committed an act that was detrimental to both him and his country. In a fight, he killed his oldest son. Upon his death three years later, he willed his kingdom to his weaker son.
Ivan's son was both physically and mentally incapable of being king. He died without a heir, beginning a period of turmoil called the Times of Troubles. Boyars struggled with each other for power, and several impostors attempted to take the throne but met limited success. In 1613, the representatives from various Russian cities gathered to appoint a new czar and end the Times of Troubles. They chose
Michael Romanov, the grandnephew of Anastasia, Ivan III's wife. Michael began the Romanov dynasty, which ruled for around 300 years (1613-1917).
Peter the Great Takes the Throne
Eventually, the Romanovs re-centralized Russian government and passed a new code of law. This led the way for Russia's absolute monarch, Czar Peter I. Crowned in 1696, continued the trend of
extending the czar's powers.
When Peter I, also called Peter the Great took the throne, Russia was still a land run by the boyars. Serfdom in Russia lasted much longer than it did in the rest of Europe, continuing in Russia until the mid-nineteenth century. (In other places, it lasted until the seventeenth century at the latest.) Russian serfs were treated more as property than as human beings:
• when a piece of land was sold, the serfs who worked the land were also sold
• serfs could be sold or given as presents
• it was considered unlawful for serfs to run away from their owners
to stay in the city proper.
Peter the Great took a keen interest in the tools that were very different from what his Russians used. But above all, Peter was very interested in traveling and seafaring. Just one year after becoming ruler over all of Russia, Peter I embarked on the Great Embassy, a long voyage to visit Western Europe. His goal was to learn Western European industrial techniques and to adapt them to Russia. This was the first time that a czar had ever traveled among the Western European “heretics.” Throughout his journey, Peter insisted on keeping his identity a complete secret, but word of his identity soon got out.
Peter the Great Rules Absolutely
Inspired by his trip to Western Europe, Peter I decided that he would become both a political and economic competitor. Peter's goal of westernization, which would use Western Europe as a model for reform in Russia. Peter saw this as a great way to make himself stronger.
Although Peter believed that Russia needed to reform, he also knew that many Russian citizens disagreed. To force these changes upon his people, Peter began ruling absolutely. He brought the Russian Orthodox Church under his control, and appointed a group called the Holy Synod to control it. Just like his great-uncle, Ivan the Terrible, Peter I also greatly reduced his nobles' powers so that he may become stronger. In their stead, Peter appointed hardworking middle-class men to positions of authority and rewarded them with grants of land. Because he gave them so much, they were also completely loyal to him. Peter I also modernized his army. Being recruited meant that you were a soldier for life. (By Peter's death, the Russian army had over 200,000 men recruited.) To pay for this massive army, he imposed heavy taxes.
In addition, Peter also:
• introduced the potato to Russian farmers
• started Russia's first newspaper (he even edited the first issue himself!)
• raised the social status of women by having them attend social gatherings
• ordered the nobles to start dressing like Western Europeans and give up their traditional clothing
• made tremendous advances in learning (he even permitted people to leave the country to study foreign topics)
To promote trade, Peter started a new port city, which would be key in communicating and trading with Western Europe. He conquered a piece of the Baltic Coast from Sweden. (Peter actually already had control of the city before, since he ordered Russian troops to begin a development here. He named the city St. Petersburg.) When the building of St. Petersburg was completed, Peter ordered many of his subjects to leave Moscow and live with him in his new capital.
How much good or bad Peter the Great did by reforming Russia is up for debate. He was, however, quite successful at what he did. By 1725, Russia had turned itself around from being an
Chapter 21, Section 5
Parliament Limits the English Monarchy
Over the course of her reign, Queen Elizabeth I8 of England had frequent arguments with Parliament, the legislative body of the English government. Many of theses arguments were over money, since Elizabeth I lacked the necessary funds to pay for her expenses. In 1603, when Elizabeth I died and her heir took the throne, he faced a massive debt. It was Parliament's financial powers that was one of English monarchs were facing in order to become absolute monarchs.
Monarchs Clash with Parliament
Elizabeth had no child. As a result, the throne was given to her cousin, James Stuart. Already the king of Scotland, King James became James I in 1603. (Despite the fact that England and Scotland were not united for another century, they now shared a common ruler.) With the English throne came all of the issues left unsettled in Elizabeth I's reign. One of these issues was over how much power Parliament should have versus how much power the king should have. James I believed that he had the divine right to rule, meaning that God had chosen him to be a ruler and this was a right that was irrevocable. In addition, James I also had many struggles with Parliament over money, who were reluctant to pay for his extravagant lifestyle and expensive wars. In addition, James I offended many of the Puritan members of Parliament. Before James I became a Calvinist, the Puritans had hoped that he would continue to reform the Church of England further and completely abolish Catholicism. James had his own agenda. With the exception of the creation of a new translation of the Bible, the King James Bible, James almost never gave in to the Puritans.
In 1625, James I died and his son Charles I assumed the throne. Just like his predecessors, Charles I also desperately needed money, mainly to fund his war with France and Spain. He was refused the funds, and as a result, disbanded Parliament. However, Charles I soon had to call Parliament back into session. This time, they agreed to provide Charles I with money if and only if he signed a document known as the Petition of Rights, where the king agreed to:
• not imprison subjects without reasonable proof of their guiltiness
• not lpass taxes without Parliament's consent
• not hose soldiers in private homes
• not impose martial law during times of peace
Despite the fact that Charles I completely disregarded the Petition of Rights, it was still significant because it created an idea that the king was not above the law — a clear contradiction of absolute monarchy. In 1629, Charles I once again disbanded Parliament and refused to call it back into session. He imposed numerous fees, fines, and taxes on English citizens. As a result, his popularity plumetted.
English Civil War
Charles I offended the Puritans in England by not introducing new rituals and maintaining a formal prayer book. In addition, he also tried to force the Presbyterian Scots to accept a version of the
Anglican Church's prayer book. The Scots rebelled and threatened Charles I with invasion. Once again, Charles I was forced to call Parliament back into session. This gave Parliament the perfect opportunity to oppose him. In 1641, Parliament began passing new laws that severely limited royal power. In response, Charles I tried (and ultimately failed) to arrest Parliament's leaders, springing an angry mob. Charles I fled for his life out of London to northern England, where he was very popular. This began the English Civil War, which lasted from 1642-1649.On one end of the spectrum, you had Charles' supporters, called Royalists or Cavaliers. On the other side of the spectrum, you had the Purtians. In
1644, the Puritans finally found a leader who would turn the tables (which, up until, favored both ends) in their favor, Oliver Cromwell. In 1646, Cromwell's New Model Army defeated the Royalists. The Puritans took the king prisoner. Three years later, Charles I was brought to trial on charges of treason and found guilty. He was the first king to be executed in public.
Cromwell was now in power. He established a commonwealth, or a republican form of government. In 1653, Cromwell too dismissed Parliament and ordered a drafting of a constitution — the first of its kind. However, Cromwell eventually tore up the constitution and declared himself dictator. A rebellion almost immediately sprung up in Ireland, but was put down. Meanwhile, in England, Cromwell and Puritans sought to reform English society. He was very tolerant of other Christians with the exception of Catholics. (Cromwell even welcomed back the Jews, who were expelled in 1290.)
Restoration and Revolution
Oliver Cromwell ruled until his death. The government that he had established had all but completely collapsed, and in 1959, Charles I's son, Charles II, was asked by Parliament to be ruler of England. This period, called the Restoration, restored the monarchy. (For the first time, women played female roles in English plays!) Parliament also passed a “guarantee of freedom,” called habeas corpus. In addition, there was much controversy surrounding who would be Charles II's successor, since his heir apparent, his brother James, was a Catholic. A group called the Whigs opposed James, whereas a group called the
Tories supported him. (These became the ancestors of England's political parties.)
In 1865, James II assumed the throne after his brother's death. He violated English law by appointing Catholic officials to high office. Just like those before him, when Parliament protested, he simply dissolved it. James II had an older daughter, Mary, who was Protestant and was married to William of Orange, the king of the Netherlands. They were invited to overthrow James II and restore Protestantism to England. This became known as the Glorious Revolution.
Political Changes
To make a clear line between who had what powers, Parliament drew up a Bill of Rights in 1689. It said what powers the king did and did not have:
• He did not have the ability to suspend Parliament's laws
• He could not pass new taxes without permission
• He could not interfere with freedom of speech
• He could not punish someone who petitioned against the king.
William and Mary consented to these limitations. In addition, while a monarch could not rule without Parliament's permission, the reverse was also true. This would become a problem if the two disagreed with each other, causing the government to come to a standstill. This was remedied by a cabinet, who acted in the rulers name but represented the majority opinion of Parliament. They bridged the gap between the two political bodies.
