Exploring and predicting South African consumer's intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels : extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Exploring and predicting South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards

selecting green hotels: Extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour

by

DUANE DE FREITAS

submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF CONSUMER SCIENCE

at the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPERVISOR: DR T S VAN EEDEN

CO-SUPERVISOR: DR L CHRISTIE

AUGUST 2018

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DECLARATION

I, Duane De Freitas hereby declare that the MCS research dissertation entitled:

Exploring and predicting South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels: Extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour

is my work and contains no section copied in whole or in part from any other source unless explicitly identified in quotation marks or in italics and with detailed, complete and accurate referencing.

08/08/2018

………. ……….

DUANE DE FREITAS

DATE

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ABSTRACT

Although South African consumers are reflecting increased green purchasing intentions, the factors that will lead to their intended behaviour to select green hotels have yet to be researched. Accordingly, the research proposes to explore the predictive ability of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and then further modify and develop extended model structures surrounding the TPB, to identify and confirm an independent theoretical model that will effectively and comprehensively be able to predict South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels. To answer the aim and objectives set, the research positioned itself within a non-experimental quantitative paradigm. An online questionnaire was distributed to South African consumers that stayed at a hotel at least once within a 12-month period. A total of 402 completed and error-free responses were used for statistical analysis.

Descriptive statistical analysis was used to assess, derive and understand the demographic profile of the respondents and determine the respondent’s characteristics as South Africans who intend to stay at or visit hotels. Structural equation modelling (SEM) revealed that Azjen (1991)’s original TPB is a strong predictor of behavioural intention, indicating its applicability to the domain of South African consumers’ behavioural intention towards selecting green hotels. In addition, it was found that South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels can statistically be best explained by expanding on the original TPB model to include emotive and non-cognitive predictor variables, namely anticipated regret (AR) and perceived moral obligation (PMO), as direct constructs to behavioural intention as well as by including environmental knowledge (EK) as a direct predictor variable to attitude (ATT). Furthermore, it found that the relationship between behavioural intention and perceived behavioural control (PBC) was the strongest and most significant, followed by subjective norm (SN), ATT, PMO and AR. Lastly, the findings revealed that PBC, ATT, SN, PMO and AR can all act as positive and highly significant intermediaries between EK and behavioural intention.

The study contributed towards theory by identifying and assessing the psychographic factors that will best explain the consumer decision-making processes leading to behavioural intention in context to green hotel selection. The study further extends its contribution by adding value to environmental sustainable literature in context to an emerging economy, namely South Africa. Although South African consumers are reflecting increased green purchasing intentions, the psychological factors that will lead to the intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels have not received much attention in research. It was, therefore, important and theoretically valuable to not only investigate the predictive ability of the original TPB, but to also modify, develop and extend model variations surrounding the TPB to thoroughly explore the predictive ability for South African consumers’ intention to select green hotels.

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KEYWORDS: ABBREVIATIONS:

Green Behavioural intention - IN

Hotels Attitude - ATT

Ecotourism Subjective norms - SN

eco-friendly Perceived behavioural control - PBC

green consumerism Perceived moral obligation - PMO

consumer behaviour Anticipated regret - AR

South African consumers Environmental knowledge - EK

environmental consciousness Environmental concern - EC

consumer decision-making process Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank the following persons for their invaluable support and unending encouragement who contributed towards the completion of the respective dissertation:

Dr Tertia Van Eeden and Dr Lorna Christie, my supervisor and co-supervisor respectively, who continually installed knowledge and guidance not only throughout the duration of this research, but through my academic studies in general. I am further grateful for their encouragement, patience, and support throughout the dissertation.

Prof. Dewar, for reviewing my dissertation’s language and grammar as well as for his unconditional moral support during this journey.

My parents and my partner for their kind love, encouragement, motivation and patience to never give up.

To you all, my sincere thanks and I wish you all strength in your endeavours - may people be as caring and helpful as you’ve been to me.

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DEDICATION

Dedicated to my brother.

Clive Bruce De Freitas

Forever in my memory

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ….….…….……….…..………....…....… xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION ………...….…….. 1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ….….…….……….…….…..…..….…..… 4

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ………..………...………... 4

1.4 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ………...……… 5

1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY …..………...….. 6

1.6 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION ……..………...…….… 6

1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY ………..…...………... 8

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ….…………..………..……….…….

9

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GREEN HOTEL INDUSTRY …..………...….… 9

2.2 THE GREEN HOSPITALITY MOVEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA ……….…... 12

2.3 GREEN CONSUMERISM AND BEHAVIOURAL INTENTION ……….. 14

2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR …. 18 2.4.1 Role of attitude (ATT) within the TPB …….………..…...…… 19

2.4.2 Role of subjective norm (SN) within the TPB ………...……...… 20

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2.5 DERIVATION OF THE EXTENDED TPB COMPONENTS ……….... 22

2.5.1 Anticipated regret (AR) ……….……… 23

2.5.2 Perceived moral obligation (PMO) ……..………..………. 24

2.5.3 Environmental concern (EC) ………...……..…. 24

2.5.4 Environmental knowledge (EK) ………..…...…. 25

2.6 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES AND MODEL VARIATIONS ………….…... 26

2.6.1 Research objective 1 ………..…….…… 27

2.6.2 Research objective 2 ……..………..….….. 28

2.6.3 Research objective 3 ………...………….…...… 29

2.6.4 Research objective 4 ……….………….…….… 30

2.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY ……….….. 31

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..……….………….….……

32

3.1 PARADIGMATIC ASSUMPTIONS AND PERSPECTIVES ….……… 32

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ………….…….…. 34

3.3 SAMPLING STRATEGY ……….………..…...……... 35

3.3.1 Target population and sample ………...…..…..… 35

3.3.2 Sample size ………..………...………...… 36

3.3.3 Sample methodology ……....………..…..……..….… 36

3.4 DATA COLLECTION PROCESS …..……….……..…..…... 38

3.4.1 Data collection instrument ………..……….. 38

3.4.2 Distribution of the questionnaire ………..…… 38

3.4.3 Operationalisation of the questionnaire …………...……….. 39

3.5 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ...….. 51

3.5.1 Research reliability ……….……….….. 51

3.5.2 Research validity ………….……….…………..…… 52

3.5.2.1 Content validity ……….... 53

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3.6 DATA ANALYSIS STRATEGIES ………...……..….. 55

3.6.1 Deriving the scale of measurement and statistical approach ….... 55

3.6.2 Data screening and management ………... 58

3.6.2.1 Univariate normality ………... 58

3.6.2.2 Multivariate normality ……….. 59

3.6.3 Descriptive statistics ………. 60

3.6.4 Measurement scale analysis ……….. 60

3.6.4.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) ……….…….. 61

3.6.4.2 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) ……….… 62

3.6.5 Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) ….…………....……….…..… 62

3.6.5.1 Measurement model assessment ……..…………..…… 63

3.6.5.2 Structural model assessment ……….…….. 64

3.6.5.3 Model refinement …..…..………..….. 64

3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS….……….………..……..…. 65

3.7.1 Privacy, confidentiality and anonymity …………..….…...….…..… 65

3.7.2 Informed consent ………….………………..…….. 66

3.7.3 Communication of results ……….….………..….…...….. 66

3.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY….………...…………..….…. 66

CHAPTER 4: SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTIVE FINDINGS 68

4.1 DATA SCREENING AND MANAGEMENT ………...…….….. 68

4.1.1 Investigating univariate normality …………...…. 68

4.1.1.1 Univariate outliers ………..… 69

4.1.1.2 Skewness & kurtosis ……….…… 69

4.1.2 Investigating multivariate normality ………...………... 70

4.2 SAMPLE DEMOGRAPHICS ………...…….……….. 70

4.2.1 Age, gender and marital status ………...…… 71

4.2.2 Language, ethnicity and residency ………...……… 72

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4.3 SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS WITHIN THE HOTEL INDUSTRY .…….... 74

4.3.1 Hotel grade selection ………..………...……… 74

4.3.2 Visit intentions ………..………...………..…….….…… 75

4.3.3 Visit locations ………..….….….….. 75

4.3.4 Environmental information sources ………...…….…...… 76

4.4 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE MEASUREMENT VARIABLES.……... 77

4.4.1 Behavioural intention (IN) ……..……….………...…..… 77

4.4.2 Attitude (ATT) ………..………...………..……….… 78

4.4.3 Subjective norm (SN) ………..………….. 79

4.4.4 Perceived behavioural control (PBC) ………..….……..… 80

4.4.5 Perceived moral obligation (PMO) ………..………… 80

4.4.6 Anticipated regret (AR) ………..………..………….. 81

4.4.7 Environmental knowledge (EK) ………..….……..….. 82

4.4.8 Environmental concern (EC) ……….………..……. 82

4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY….………...……….…. 83

CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ………. 85

5.1 MEASUREMENT SCALE ANALYSIS ……….……….….. 85

5.1.1 Reliability (Internal consistency)………….………..….…. 85

5.1.2 Validity ………..…………...….….….… 88

5.1.2.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) ………...….… 88

5.1.2.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) ….……….……… 96

5.2 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING (SEM) ………...….…..….. 99

5.2.1 TPB Model A Variation: SEM analysis ………...……….………… 99

5.2.2 TPB Model B Variation: SEM analysis …….………...….… 102

5.2.3 TPB Model C Variation: SEM analysis ………..…...….… 104

5.2.4 Model refinement: deriving the best TPB predictor model …..… 107

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CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ……….

112

6.1 DISCUSSION OUTCOMES OF THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES .…..….. 112

6.1.1 Research objective 1 ……….……..….. 112

6.1.2 Research objective 2 ...…… 116

6.1.3 Research objective 3 ……….……….……… 118

6.1.4 Research objective 4………..…....….………… 121

6.2 SUMMARY OF MAIN RESEARCH FINDINGS …………..……..……….….. 122

6.3 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY ………….. 123

6.4 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE STUDY ……….……….……… 127

6.5 RESEARCH LIMITATIONS AND AVENUES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH . 128 6.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY….……….………...………..…. 130

REFERENCE LIST

……….………..………….

APPENDIX A: Research Instrument: Online Questionnaire

………..…..…

APPENDIX B: Skewness and Kurtosis Results

……….…….….……

APPENDIX C: Chi-square Distribution Table

……….…….…….…

APPENDIX D: Inter-item Correlations Table

………..….….…….………

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LIST OF TABLES

PAGE

TABLE 1: Reflection of TPB statements and scales included within the questionnaire .. 43

TABLE 2: Data analysis steps and purpose ……… 57

TABLE 3: Measurement model assessment criteria ………. 63

TABLE 4: Assessment of respondent’s age, gender and marital status ………...…….… 71

TABLE 5: Assessment of respondent’s home language, ethnicity and residency .….…. 72 TABLE 6: Assessment of highest level of education achieved and employment status 74

TABLE 7: Assessment of respondent’s hotel grade selection ……….……... 75

TABLE 8: Assessment of respondent’s hotel visit intentions ………...….………….. 75

TABLE 9: Assessment of respondent’s hotel visit locations ………... 76

TABLE 10: Assessment of respondent’s source of green information ………... 77

TABLE 11: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Intention) ……..……….…….. 78

TABLE 12: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Attitude) …………..………. 78

TABLE 13: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Subjective norm) ……… 79

TABLE 14: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Perceived behavioural control) … 80 TABLE 15: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Perceived moral obligation) ……. 81

TABLE 16: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Perceived moral obligation) ……. 81

TABLE 17: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Environmental knowledge) …….. 82

TABLE 18: Descriptive statistics: Predictor variable (Environmental concern) ….…….. 83

TABLE 19: Cronbach’s Alpha reliability results ……….………… 86

TABLE 20: KMO and Bartlett’s test results for Model A ……….….…….. 89

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TABLE 22: Factor correlation matrix (Model A) ………..…. 90

TABLE 23: KMO and Bartlett’s test results for Model B ……….……… 91

TABLE 24: Pattern matrix (Model B) ………. 91

TABLE 25: Factor correlation matrix (Model B) ………...….. 92

TABLE 26: KMO and Bartlett’s test results for Model C ……….…. 93

TABLE 27: Initial pattern matrix (Model C) ……….… 93

TABLE 28: Revised pattern matrix (Model C) ……….……... 94

TABLE 29: Factor correlation matrix (Model C) ……….………..….. 95

TABLE 30: Convergent and discriminant validity for CFA model (Model A) ….….…... 97

TABLE 31: Convergent and discriminant validity for CFA model (Model B) ….…….... 97

TABLE 32: Convergent and discriminant validity for CFA model (Model C) ……....….. 98

TABLE 33: Convergent and discriminant validity for CFA model (Model C)- Revised.. 98

TABLE 34: SEM results (Model A)- Factor loadings, R2 _{and GOF ……….….… 100}

TABLE 35: Structural model results (Model A)- hypotheses testing results …….….… 101

TABLE 36: SEM results (Model B)- Factor loadings, R2 _{and GOF ….……….… 102}

TABLE 37: Structural model results (Model B)- hypotheses testing results ……..…… 103

TABLE 38: SEM (Model C)- Factor loadings, R2 _{and GOF ….……….… 105}

TABLE 39: Structural model results (Model C)- hypotheses testing results ……….…. 106

TABLE 40: X2 _{and df values of the three TPB model variations ………....…. 108}

TABLE 41: Nested Model results- GOF values ……….…. 108

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE FIGURE 1: Hospitality core components ……… 10 FIGURE 2: The five stages of the consumer decision-making process .…..……...…. 14 FIGURE 3: The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model ……….……. 18 FIGURE 4: Model A: ATT, SN and PBC as direct predictors to IN …………...……. 27 FIGURE 5: Model B: Includes AR and PMO as direct predictors to IN ………..…… 28 FIGURE 6: Model C: Includes EK and EC as indirect predictors to IN ……….….…. 30 FIGURE 7: Summary of the model variations reflecting hypothesized paths .…..….. 31 FIGURE 8: Demographics of the basic South African panel for Springvale Online…. 37 FIGURE 9: Information abstract presented within Part 2 of the questionnaire …... 40 FIGURE 10: Case scenario presented within Part 3 of the questionnaire ……….…. 41 FIGURE 11: TPB Model A: Structural model illustration with results ……...……..…. 101 FIGURE 12: TPB Model B: Structural model illustration with results ……...……..…. 104 FIGURE 13: TPB Model C: Structural model illustration with results …..…...….…. 107 FIGURE 14: TPB Nested Model: Structural model illustration with results .……..…. 109

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 introduces the background to and overview of the current research within the context of green consumerism and delineates the challenges and benefits associated with the green hospitality industry within South Africa. In addition, the section highlights the focus of research relative to extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour going on to present the problem statement, purpose of the study and the aim and objectives of the research. The section concludes with an outline of the chapters to follow within the research dissertation.

1.1 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION

Over the past few decades, society has been progressively acknowledging the seriousness of environmental degradation, extending their concerns for the environment beyond conscious reflection (Gifford & Nilsson 2014; Newman & Fernandes 2015; and Skogen, Helland & Kaltenborn 2018). Consequently, changes in society’s attitude and consumption behaviours towards businesses offering environmental friendly products and/or services have become notably prevalent. Studies have revealed that consumers are more likely to exhibit a positive and favourable attitude towards companies that are sensitive to environmental matters (Afonso, Gavilan, Garcia-Madariaga 2018; and Leonidou, Christodoulides & Thwaites 2016). Consumers subsequently start to search for and purchase green products and/or services over alternatives, sometimes even paying more for such (Anvar & Venter 2014; Cheah & Phau 2011; Kang, Stein, Heo & Lee 2012; and D’Souza, Taghian & Khosla 2007). In turn, the green movement propelled both product- and service-positioned businesses to modify purchasing methods, manufacturing processes, operation and marketing procedures to meet the green consumer demand (D’Souza & Taghian 2005; Maniatis 2016; and Paul, Modi & Patel 2016).

With respect to the service sector, environmental concerns have stimulated a growing niche market, namely the green hotel industry (Chan & Hsu 2016). Concern for the environment stems from the hotel industry’s efforts against releasing emissions into the air, water and soil and also by reducing excessive consumption of non-durable goods, energy and water (Bohadanowicz, Zientara & Novatna 2011; Chen & Tung 2014; and Ogbeide 2012). Consequently, hotels have steadily begun to embrace global environmental initiatives to become green (Kang et al. 2012; and Rahman, Park & Chi 2015). Hotel marketing and operational procedures have, in turn, become proactive towards following green practices and developing environmental initiatives in their efforts to protect the environment and to meet the consumer demand in this regard (Chan 2013; Chan & Wong 2006; and Han & Yoon 2015).

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A factor relating to the growth and support of the green hotel sector stems from the increasing interest and awareness towards sustainable tourism (Chan & Hsu 2016; and Lu & Nepal 2009). The United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) (2017) defines sustainable tourism as, “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities”. Southern Africa, compared to its international counterparts, is not as progressive within the sustainable tourism movement due to its poverty and equality challenges. However, much potential is foreseen especially within one of the region’s wealthiest and most bio-diverse countries, namely South Africa, where the sustainability concern is not only focused on environmental protection, but rather aimed at reducing poverty for the nations’ people and to promote equality while growing the economy (Amusan 2017; Rogerson & Sims 2012; and Swilling, Musango & Wakeford 2015).

According to a study issued by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) in 2017, South Africa is a popular tourist destination where foreign overnight visitors increased by 12.8% in 2016. Tourism in South Africa is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy that contributed 10% to South Africa’s GDP in 2016, up from 9% in 2015. With respect to the hotel industry, revenue from accommodation increased by 12.2% in 2016 (PwC 2017). Against these favourable economic benefits, there are challenges that currently stagnate the potential growth within the green hotel market. Despite the implementation of a national policy commitment to encourage environmental sustainability within South Africa’s tourism economy (Department of Tourism 2011), there exists a low level of national government support, absence of government regulatory measures, and a lack of responsible tourism initiatives within the hotel industry (Rogerson & Sims 2012; and Van Der Merwe & Wocke 2007). Furthermore, although international studies, as early as 1993, have examined pro-environmental management, practices, strategies, policies, as well as behavioural intentions and attitudes towards green practices in context to the hospitality industry (Chan & Hsu 2016), limited research has been documented in South Africa.

With respect to the long-standing challenge of eradicating poverty and equality issues, the focus on green consumerism in South Africa only, in the last decade, became a topic of research interest (Anvar & Venter 2014; Bisschoff & Liebenberg 2016; Brits 2015; Dubihlela & Ngxukumeshe 2016; Ferrreira 2014; Hamilton 2014; Hughes, McEwan & Bek 2015; Mkhize & Ellis 2018; Moller 2018; Nkosi & Dikgang 2016; Scott & Vigar-Ellis 2014; Sonnenberg 2014; Synodinos 2014; and Taljaard 2015). Prior to this era, the demand for research on green consumerism in South Africa was mainly emanated from international research studies that have cited factors influencing the growth of green consumer behaviour and that have relevance to South Africa (Rogerson & Sims 2012; and Saunders & Barden 2007).

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Research relative to South African green hotels has essentially focused on the demands, attitudes, management as well as the sustainable practices of green hotels (Gaibee 2014; George & Fray 2009; Mbasera 2015; Rogerson & Sims 2012; Spenceley 2008; and Van der Merwe & Wocke 2007). However, the investigation around the different psychological factors that will lead to the intended behaviour of South African consumers to select green hotels has yet to be considered. Such investigations, in context to the hotel industry, will allow stakeholders to understand the antecedents which will affect green hotel decision-making processes (Barber 2014; Berezan, Raab, Yoo & Love 2013; Chen & Tung 2014; Gao & Mattila 2014; Han, Hsu, Lee & Sheu 2011; Han & Kim 2010; Huang, Lin, Lai & Lin 2014; Kang et al. 2012; Miao & Wei 2013; Rahman & Reynolds 2017; Susskind 2014; and Verma & Chandra 2017). This understanding, within the South African context, will conceivably initiate the provision in developing hotel environmental programs and initiatives, to more effectively incorporate marketing and service strategies that induce positive decisions for consumers to select green hotels, and potentially add value as well as benefit South Africa’s economy.

To effectively predict and explore South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels, Ajzen (1991)’s Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) was adopted as the theoretical framework for the current research. The TPB is one of the most widely researched and consistent models used by social psychologists to predict ecological behavioural intentions (Chen 2016; Chen & Hung 2016; Chen & Tung 2014; Han & Kim 2010; Han, Hsu & Sheu 2010; Kim, Njite & Hancer 2013; Moser 2015; Paul et al. 2016; and Yadav & Pathak 2016). According to Ajzen (1991), the TPB is open to the inclusion of additional variables on condition that the modifications increase the explained variance in behavioural intentions. Within the green hotel context, Chen and Tung (2014), Han et al. (2010), and Han and Kim (2010) among others, have confirmed that extending the TPB did present statistically powerful models in explaining consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels. Therefore, we deem it plausible within this context, to not only explore the predictive ability of the original TPB, but to also develop and investigate the extended TPB model variations, modified from significant variables derived from previous research studies. The investigation will further identify and refine a model that will most favourably explain the predictive ability of South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels.

The variables to be investigated within the research include the primary TPB components, namely attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen 1991), as well as the proposed ecologically defined psychographic variables, namely anticipated regret, perceived moral obligation, environmental concern and environmental knowledge (Chen & Tung 2014; Han et al. 2010; Han & Kim 2010; and Kim et al. 2013). The following sections present the problem statement, the purpose as well as the aim and objectives of the research.

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1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Increased public concern and awareness towards environmental sustainability has compelled public and private sectors to modify operational practices and procedures, not only to protect the environment and to reduce operating costs but also to remain competitive in the progressive developing green market (Afanso et al. 2018; Maniatis 2016; and Paul et al. 2016). Accordingly, research investigating the decision-making processes surrounding green consumer behaviour has become increasingly important and requires regular investigation (Groening, Sarkis & Zhu 2018; and Oztek & Cengel 2013). With respect to understanding the psychographic determinants within consumer behaviour, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), derived by Ajzen (1991), is considered one of the most powerful and consistent frameworks for predicting behavioural intention. Although the TPB has been applied within various ecological research contexts (Chen & Hung 2016; Moser 2015; Paul et al. 2016; and Yadav & Pathak 2016), limited research has adopted the TPB within context to green hotels. In addition, attempting to modify and develop models surrounding the TPB within a green hotel context has been very rare. Ultimately, utilising the TPB to understand green consumerism more effectively within the global hotel industry still requires exploration.

As a result of past political challenges as well as due to the lack of government support, measures, initiatives and commitment to encourage environmental sustainability, the focus on green consumerism research in South Africa only recently became a topic of research interest (Anvar & Venter 2014; Bisschoff & Liebenberg 2016; Brits 2015; Christie 2018; Dubihlela & Ngxukumeshe 2016; Ferreira 2014; Hamilton 2014; Hughes, McEwan & Bek 2015; Mkhize & Ellis 2018; Moller 2018; Nkosi & Dikgang 2016; Scott & Vigar-Ellis 2014; Sonnenberg 2014; Synodinos 2014; and Taljaard 2015). Although South African consumers are reflecting increased green purchasing intentions, the factors that will lead to behavioural intention to select green hotels have yet to be researched. It will, therefore, be important and valuable to not only investigate the predictive ability of the original TPB, but to also modify and develop extended model variations surrounding the TPB to thoroughly explore the predictive ability of South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Foregoing investigating the predictive ability of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), modifying and developing model structures surrounding the TPB could further assist in detecting differences between attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, perceived moral obligation, anticipated regret, environmental concern, and environmental knowledge with respect to green hotel selection intention among South African consumers.

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The findings of the study could be used to assist marketers, operations, regulatory authorities and government to more effectively understand the decision-making process involved within the green hotel context. This, in turn, will enable the effective development of hotel environmental programs and initiatives, improve policies, and more effectively incorporate marketing and service strategies that will induce South African consumers to select green hotels. Such an understanding and movement could significantly contribute towards South Africa building international relationships where corporate sustainability lead markets, for both the hospitality and tourism sectors. Subsequently, active sustainable practices within the hospitality and tourism sector may also have the potential to alleviate poverty in South Africa by channelling money into the economy and creating sustainable employment opportunities.

1.4 RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the research is to first explore the predictive ability of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and then modify and develop extended model structures surrounding the TPB, in order to identify and confirm an independent theoretical model that will effectively and comprehensively predict South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels. In order to achieve this aim, the following objectives were formulated:

1) To describe and determine the relative ability for the TPB predictor variables, namely attitude (ATT), subjective norm (SN) and perceived behavioural control (PBC), to predict South African consumers’ intended behaviour (IN) in selecting green hotels.

2) To evaluate whether including anticipated regret (AR) and perceived moral obligation (PMO) into the TPB, as direct predictor variables to behavioural intention (IN), would influence the predictive ability of green hotel selection within South Africa.

3a) To examine whether the relationships between environmental concern (EC) and all the proposed behavioural intentions’ direct predictor variables (ATT, SN, PBC, AR and PMO) will contribute towards or enhance the predictive ability for South African consumers to select green hotels (IN).

3b) To examine whether the relationship between environmental knowledge (EK) and attitude (ATT) will contribute to or enhance the predictive ability for South African consumers to select green hotels (IN).

4) To refine, compare and identify a theoretical model which will best explain South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels.

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1.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

To effectively answer the research aim and objectives set for the current study, it was of value for the research to be positioned within a experimental quantitative paradigm. The non-experimental and quantitative aspect of the research intended to establish and confirm the derived psychographic variables’ relationships surrounding the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), through statistical analysis. Furthermore, the research design undertaken employed a cross-sectional correlational research design, as each variables’ magnitude and direction within a set of relationships at a given point in time was assessed.

To obtain valuable results within a limited time frame, an online questionnaire was distributed to a sample population that was selected by using non-probability convenience sampling. A total of 402 completed and error-free responses were used for statistical analysis. The research instrument was confirmed to have a satisfactory level of reliability and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis techniques were used to confirm the validity of the research.

Descriptive statistics was used to assess, derive and understand the demographic profile of the respondents, determine the respondent’s characteristics as South Africans who intend to stay at or visit green hotels, as well as provide a descriptive view of each psychographic variables’ performance within the research. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) concluded the data analysis of the research by assessing the measurement and structural models of each of the three developed and modified TPB, to determine whether the models fit the data as well as test the hypotheses set for the current research.

1.6 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION

The research project will be presented in six chapters that are organized and follow each other sequentially as described below:

Chapter 1: Introduces the background to and overview of the current research in context to green consumerism and delineates the challenges and benefits associated with the green hospitality industry within South Africa. In addition, the section highlights the focus of research relative to extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour, furthermore presenting the problem statement, purpose of the study and the research aim and objectives of the research.

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Chapter 2: Discusses the relevant literature pertaining to the green hotel industry, the green movement within South Africa, as well as the literature relevant to understanding behavioural intention within the context of green consumerism that will lead the theoretical framework of the current study. The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the proposed psychographic variables that will surround the TPB is furthermore derived within the theoretical framework discussion of the chapter. Lastly, the hypotheses and the three TPB model variations was derived against which the research objectives will be assessed.

Chapter 3: Provides the methodological approach of the study by delineating and discussing the paradigmatic assumptions and perspectives of the current study, the research design, the sampling strategy, the data collection processes, the validity and reliability analysis, as well as the data analysis process and ethical considerations that the research project will follow to ethically achieve the research aim and objectives set.

Chapter 4: Presents the analysis and findings of the demographic data collected from the questionnaires. Data screening and management processes were first evaluated to ascertain that the data utilised in the research is acceptable for both descriptive and inferential data analysis. Descriptive analysis included deriving the demographic profile of the sample population, determine the sample’s characteristics as South Africans who intend to stay at or visit a hotel, and gain a descriptive view of each psychographic variables’ performance.

Chapter 5: Presents the inferential data analysis used to assess the measurement scales and the variations of the measurement and structural models to test the hypotheses set for the research. The results of the measurement scales used to test the reliability and validity of the predictor variables was assessed. Structural Equation Modelling was performed to evaluate the relationships between each TPB model variations’ predictor variables and test the hypotheses. Finally, a structural model was refined to determine whether the predictive ability of the TPB within context to green hotels can be improved.

Chapter 6: Concludes the study by discussing the summarised outcomes of the research objectives set, presents a summary of the major findings derived within the research, discusses the theoretical and practical implications as well as the

recommendations of the research, presents the contributions of the study, and finally provides the limitations and avenues for future research.

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1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter one presented the background and justification of the study to further delineate the problem statement, the purpose of the study, as well as the research aim and objectives set to successfully explore and explain South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels by extending the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). It was firstly noted that the green hotel industry movement in South Africa appears less progressive than its international counterparts, but the industry is receiving increasing recognition despite South Africa’s past and present political and regulatory challenges. Attaining more knowledge respective to green consumerism within a South African hotel context could assist marketers, businesses, regulatory authorities and government to effectively develop environmental programs, initiatives, policies and strategies that will induce positive decisions for South African consumers to select green hotels and thus add value towards tourism and the South African economy in general. A step towards attaining this goal is to explore the predictive ability of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as well as to modify and develop extended model structures surrounding the TPB, in order to identify and confirm an independent theoretical model which will effectively and comprehensively predict South African consumers’ intended behaviour to select green hotels. To fully comprehend the context of the research, the next section will introduce the literature pertaining to green hotel consumption behaviour from a national and international perspective, and lastly introduce the TPB with its respective and derived extended components or variables.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 2 presents a literature review of the study in three sections. The first section introduces the literature pertaining to the green hotel industry and discusses the green movement within South Africa. This section further highlights the green consumerism principle that provides the rationale behind examination of South African consumers’ behavioural intention to select green hotels. The second section presents the study’s theoretical framework based on Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and introduces the predictor extensions to the TPB model through which behavioural intentions to select green hotels may be collectively analysed to achieve the set research aim and objectives. The last section delineates the hypothesis and supporting TPB model variations of the study.

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE GREEN HOTEL INDUSTRY

The term “green” is alternatively known as eco-friendly, environmentally friendly, pro-environmental or sustainable (Haden 2009; and Young, Hwang, McDonald & Oates 2010). Within the hospitality context, the Green Hotels Association (2018) defines green hotels as “pro-environmental lodging properties which implement different green practices such as saving water and energy, reducing solid waste, and recycling and reusing durable service items to protect the earth we live in”. From a corporate social responsibility outlook, green hotels are considered to operate in a responsible manner towards its employees, the local community, the economy, the local culture, and the surrounding ecology (Kasim 2004; and Luu 2017). Essentially, these definitions conclude that green hotel establishments strive to improve environmental conditions and to operate within a socially responsible manner.

The green business concept emerged at the end of the 20th _{century due to increasing public} concern over the sustainability of economic development, the ongoing depletion of natural resources and the deterioration of environmental quality (Gifford & Nilsson 2014; Newman & Fernandes 2015; and Skogen et al. 2018). Consequently, the green movement propelled both product- and service-positioned sectors to modify purchasing methods, manufacturing processes, operation and marketing procedures to meet the public’s demands (D’Souza & Taghian 2005; Maniatis 2016; and Paul et al. 2016). Consumers, in turn, acknowledge that the product and service attributes of the tourism and hotel industry do play a major role in environmental damage, which further rely on the preservation of the environment to attract environmentally conscious consumers (Butler 2008; and Han & Yoon 2015). Accordingly, understanding how the green hotel industry was developed, will be relevant to investigate.

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A factor relating to the growth and support of the green hotel sector stems from increasing interest and awareness towards sustainable tourism (Chan & Hsu 2016; Lu & Nepal 2009; and Manaktola & Jauhari 2007). In the 1990’s, environmental issues became increasingly prevalent with respect to deforestation, energy use, reduction in toxins and, climate and water management (Mair & Jago 2010). Accordingly, tourism developers began to acknowledge the importance of sustaining the environment as air, water, weather, flora, fauna, scenic areas and natural resources all contribute towards and benefit the economics of tourism (United Nations Environment Programme 2015). Such interest and concern over sustainable tourism has, in turn, been translated into a movement for green management in the tourism industry. According to Spenceley (2008) as well as Walker and Walker (2011), green management in the tourism industry serves to protect natural resources to benefit the tourists who respect the local environment as they gain increasing awareness of environmentally friendly practices. Although each component of tourism may contribute to environmental damage, environmental concerns have received much attention within the largest tourist component, namely the hospitality industry.

The hospitality industry comprises businesses that provide accommodation, food, beverage, leisure, conference, entertainment, events, transportation and travel spaces to tourists, travellers and residents. As reflected in Figure 1, hospitality is a rather broad, multi-disciplinary construct that extends beyond basic food and shelter (Ottenbacher, Harrington & Parsa 2009). Each sector of hospitality further contributes its own share towards polluting land, air and water bodies and, thus, climate change. The significant contributions of the hospitality industry towards tourism directs focus on the industry’s impact on the environment (Chan & Hsu 2016).

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Within the accommodation sector, hotels are an important component of the hospitality industry that contributes towards environmental damage. Therefore, green management extended its focus to the hotel industry in order to protect local and natural resources from its effects (Chan & Hsu 2016; and Walker & Walker 2011). This green management was introduced in hotels in Europe and North America where the focus on becoming green was centred around complying with government regulations and saving money by reducing waste and energy usage (Lee, Hsu, Han & Kim 2010; and Shieh 2012). Hoteliers began to realise that the hotel industry does exert a significant impact on global resources and this realisation set the precedent for the development of green hotels (Chen & Tung 2014; Graci & Dodds 2008; and Kang et al. 2012). In turn, hoteliers became more proactive towards following green practices to protect the environment (Chan 2013; and Han & Yoon 2015).

The most common practices implemented by green hotels to improve their efforts towards environmental sustainability include saving water, saving energy, reducing solid waste and cleaning the air. Energy efficiency refers to activities that reduce the use of energy while providing the same level of energy service. Common methods of saving energy in hotels include the controlling of temperature and retrofitting lighting (Hsieh 2009; and Kilic & Altun 2017). Water conservation refers to reclaiming wastewater for different purposes and reducing the usage of water. Common methods to save and conserve water within hotels are to use low flow water fixtures, efficiently detect leaks and drips, using grey water for non-consumption purposes, and installing water desalination plants as well as extracting water from boreholes (Barberan, Egea, Gracia-Renteria & Salvador 2013; Heish 2012; and Tsogo Sun 2018). Solid waste management refers to the efforts made to reduce and/or recycle solid waste and includes practices such as recycling, composting and refilling amenities (Phu, Hoang and Fujiwara 2018). Lastly, air quality control aims to reduce the direct and indirect emissions of carbon caused by hotel operation factors. The use of low volatile organic compounds in petrol, and incorporating adequate air filtration are common methods to control the air quality constituted by hotels (Chan, Lee, Hon, Liu, Li & Zhu 2015; and Moreo 2008).

In addition to environmental protection, such green practices employed by a hotel can further improve economic and corporate conditions by reducing operational costs, promoting higher satisfaction and positive word of mouth, attracting new and retaining customers, and establishing more motivated employees (Deraman, Ismail, Arifin & Mostafa 2017; and Han & Yoon 2015). As a result, adapting green practices should assist hotels in establishing a new niche for environmentally concerned customers, that is, green consumers that, in turn, could sustain long-term sales and profits while protecting the environment. Due to the growing recognition in relation to supply and demand, the study of green consumers has propelled researchers to engage in understanding their behaviour in the hotel industry.

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From a consumer’s perspective, an increasing concern and awareness surrounding environmental protection has increased the global number of consumers willing to select green hotels. This increasing demand for green hotels has proven to be consistent across research studies (Barber 2014; Berezan et al. 2013; Chan & Hsu 2016; Chen & Tung 2014; Gao & Mattila 2014; Han & Kim 2010; Han & Yoon 2015; Huang et al. 2014; Kang et al. 2012; Miao & Wei 2013; Rahman & Reynolds 2017; Susskind 2014; and Verma & Chandra 2017). Despite the growing concern and awareness consumers have towards green hotels, there are countries that embrace the green concept more readily than other countries. Developed countries are more green-focused than emerging economies, mainly due to the availability of resources and the national support they generally receive (Jayanti & Gowda 2014).

Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland, representing the Nordic countries, as well as other European countries including Slovenia, Spain and Portugal, which all have developed economies, are listed in the top ten countries that are globally recognised for their environmental sustainability principles and approaches. In contrast, Egypt, Pakistan and Mongolia with emerging economic statuses are ranked as countries being the least concerned with environmental sustainability (Smith 2017; Sustainable Brand Index 2018; and World Economic Situation Prospects 2018). Although almost all countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean have emerging economic statuses, there are countries that significantly contribute towards the world economy and, thus, have the potential to develop and improve their environmental sustainable stance. Emerging economies that do play a role in the world economy include Argentina, Brazil, the Russian Federation and South Africa (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2017). These countries are confronted with challenges as they must compete with developed economies to remain competitive and, thus, advancements towards sustainable development is required (Pop 2013). Although South Africa has the potential to develop its sustainability approach, limited research has been conducted within context to the green hospitality industry.

2.2 THE GREEN HOSPITALITY MOVEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Apartheid and the era of exclusion, from 1948 to 1994, stifled the potential for the South African tourism sector to expand over this period due to the prevalence and implementation of restrictive laws that limited the emergence of a black middle class. Consequently, investments in hotel development in the country were unlikely (Rogerson & Sims 2012; and Saunders & Barben 2007). However, since 1994 and the end of apartheid, South Africa experienced a remarkable growth in international tourism as well as changes in the nature of domestic tourism (McKelly, Rogerson, Huysteen, Maritz & Ngidi 2017; and Rogerson & Lemon 2017).

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A study by PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) revealed that in 2016 room revenue in South Africa rose by 12.2% while that from foreign overnight visitors increased by 12.8%- the income contributed 10% to South Africa’s Gross Domestic Product, up from 9% in 2015. Furthermore, the occupancy rate edged up, surpassing the 60% level to reach 61.2% in 2016. This should continue as the number of available hotel rooms will rise at a 0.9% compounded annual rate from 61200 in 2016 to 63900 in 2021 (PwC 2017). Despite these favourable economic indicators, the responses relating to the “greening” of the hotel sector in South Africa is a topic that has so far been overlooked in local research (Rogerson & Visser 2004; and Visser 2011).

From a national regulatory perspective, the promotion of responsible tourism, since 1996, has been anchored within the South African tourism policy with the aim to encourage environmental responsibility through sustainable use in the tourism industry (Department of Tourism 2018). As from 2009, the policy commitment was reinforced when a separate National Department of Tourism was established. Despite the implementation of this environmental sustainability commitment, a low level of national government support, absence of government regulatory measures, and a lack of greening initiatives for responsible tourism initiatives exists especially within the hotel sector. Although policy support, regulatory measures and commitment to governmental initiatives is required, having a clearer conceptual understanding of green consumerism within a South African context can contribute towards the implementation, development and commitment of an effective national hospitality environmental responsibility policy (George 2017; Rogerson & Sims 2012; Sims 2011; and Van Der Merwe & Wocke 2007).

Relative to the long-standing challenge of eradicating poverty and equality issues, the research focus on green consumerism in South Africa only, within the last few years, have received increasing recognition (Anvar & Venter 2014; Bisschoff & Liebenberg 2016; Brits 2015; Christie 2018; Dubihlela & Ngxukumeshe 2016; Ferrreira 2014; Hamilton 2014; Hughes et al. 2015; Mkhize & Ellis 2018; Moller 2018; Nkosi & Dikgang 2016; Scott & Vigar-Ellis 2014; Sonnenberg 2014; and Taljaard 2015). Although the above-mentioned studies have focused on green consumerism in South Africa, an investigation has yet to be considered concerning the different psychological factors that contribute to the intended behaviour for South African consumers to select green hotels. This conceptual understanding will provide a modest contribution towards the green market not only for South Africa’s benefit, but also for potential green global markets where the topic is respectively limited. Accordingly, the understanding could significantly contribute towards building international relationships where corporate sustainability should lead markets, not only in the hospitality industry but also within the global tourism sector (Chen, Zhang, Xu 2018; Dodds & Joppe 2017; and Walsh & Dodds 2017).

Investigating South African consumers intended behaviour to select green hotels will conclusively allow marketers, businesses, regulatory authorities and government to more

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effectively understand South African consumers’ green hotel decision-making process. This understanding will allow stakeholders to be more proactive in following green practices, develop environmental programs and initiatives, develop effective marketing and service strategies for green hotels, and lastly, potentially add value to as well as benefit the South African economy (Chen & Tung 2014; Gao & Mattila 2014; Han & Kim 2010; Han & Yoon 2015; Huang et al. 2014; Kang et al. 2012; Miao & Wei 2013; Rahman & Reynolds 2017; Teng, Wu and Liu 2013; and Verma & Chandra 2017). In order to gain a background understanding of the behavioural antecedents within literature, the next section introduces the green hotel consumer decision-making process and subsequent behaviour.

2.3 GREEN CONSUMERISM AND BEHAVIOURAL INTENTION

The study of consumer behaviour focuses on the consumer decision-making process (CDP) of purchasing, using, and disposing of goods and services (Kardes, Cronley & Cline 2014; and Loudon & Bitta 2009). As reflected in Figure 2, the CDP model is the standard model which is central to all consumer-behaviour models and thus is broadly used in consumer behaviour research (Kardes et al. 2014; and Smit 2013). The model consists of five stages, namely: needs recognition and problem awareness; information search; evaluation of alternatives; actual purchase and lastly, the post-purchase evaluation. This model is based on several studies including those derived from Engel, Kollat and Blackwell (1968), Howard and Sheth (1969) and Nicosia and Mayer (1976), as first outlined by Kotler (1998). Accordingly, this section aims to discuss the respective processes within the CDP model in order to gain a conceptual understanding of behavioural intention within green hotel consumerism.

Figure 2: The five stages of the Consumer Decision-making Process (Kardes et al. 2014)

The first step involves the problem recognition or need recognition and awareness of the purchase or selection problem that must be solved for the needs and/or wants to be fulfilled. Once a consumer recognises and admits to having an unsolved problem, it must be defined in such a way that the consumer can take further steps towards proceeding with the purchasing or selection process (Kardes et al. 2014; and Schiffman & Wisenblit 2015).

With respect to the context of the current research, problem recognition starts with establishing the need and/or want for consumers to stay at or visit a green hotel. The hotel selection

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component is primarily based on whether a consumer should stay at or visit a hotel for corporate or leisure purposes (Yavas & Babacus 2005). With respect to the green principle, more awareness of the environment at this stage can contribute and improve consumers choices that favour green purchase behaviour (Schiffman & Wisenblit 2015). Essentially, once a consumer has an understanding of the need and/or want to stay at or visit a hotel and further attains enough awareness of the environment, they will generally begin to search for more information on green hotels.

The information search stage of the CDP is concerned with the internal and external information sources of a product or service, in this case green hotels (Kardes et al. 2014). When searching for information internally, the consumer will remember relevant information from previous green hotel experiences. In contrast, external information searching is concerned with seeking information about green hotels from other consumers, commercial sources and public sources (Oke, Kamolshotiros, Popoola, Ajagbe & Olujobi 2016). The internet has become the most important channel and source of information for hotel consumers (Sun, Law, Luk & Fong 2017; and Vila, Vila, Gonzalez & Brea 2018) which further extends itself to include the presence of green hotel information and booking websites such as BookDifferent (2018), GreenHotelWorld (2018) and TripAdvisor GreenLeaders Program (2018). With respect to green attributes, advanced and additional external search activities by consumers are commonly required as a result of instances of greenwashing. Greenwashing misleads consumers about the environmental benefits of a product or service for promotional and marketing purposes (Pickett-Baker & Ozaki 2008; and Leonidou & Skarmeas 2017), which have become increasingly prevalent within the green hotel sector (Rahman, Park & Chi 2015; and Yoon & Chen 2017). Once sufficient and reputable information about green hotels have been gathered, the consumer then begins to compare its options filtered.

The search for information leads to the pre-purchase evaluation of alternatives where consumers compare and choose the green hotel that best fulfils the need or solves the problem (Kardes et al. 2014; and Schiffman & Wisenblit 2015). The evaluation process for hotels are regarded as challenging to investigate as the environment in which decisions are made is intangible within the service itself (Teare 1998). The evaluation of options for hotels are based on the service’s characteristics, quality, price, facilities, location and reputation, among many others (Jannach, Gedikli, Karakaya & Juwig 2012; and Verma & Chandra 2017). Such evaluation options are commonly referred to over peer review sites which, in turn, are characterised by a growing importance on the impact of the hotel decision-making process (Gavilan, Avello & Martinez-Navarro 2018; and Lee, Hu & Lu 2018).

In addition to considering the evaluation options for hotels, the green attributes of hotels essentially make the evaluation of alternatives more challenging for a consumer to assess. A

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green hotel is defined as a hotel which operates in a responsible way towards society, community, the local culture and the environment (Green Hotels Association 2018). Therefore, more alternative options must be considered by consumers other than just environmental protection of hotels. To mediate this respective challenge, certification programs, such as Ecotel (2018) and Green Globe (2018) among others, have developed grades for the level of green efforts or practices incorporated by hotels (Verma & Chandra 2017), which consumers can evaluate against. In preparation towards making a purchase decision, the consumers will weigh which of the hotel and green attributes will give them more relevance and satisfaction related to their own personal values, needs and preferences (Baruca & Civre 2012).

When the preferred green hotel has been selected, the purchase decision is reached (Kardes et al. 2014; and Schiffman & Wisenblit 2015). The consumer will assess the selected green hotel and determine whether they are delighted, satisfied or unsatisfied with staying at or visiting the establishment based on the performance of each multi-attribute product or service alternative (Baruca & Civre 2012; and Kotler & Keller 2009). Finally, the CDP is completed as a

post-purchase evaluation that explains the degree of the assessment made during staying at or visiting a green hotel (Kardes et al. 2014; and Schiffman & Wisenblit 2015). If consumers are fully satisfied, this might result in an intention to select a green hotel over a conventional hotel once again in the future or become loyal to the specific green hotel brand and most likely spread positive word of mouth through peer review websites (Baruca & Civre 2012; Gavalin et al. 2018; Lee et al. 2018; and Oke et al. 2016).

Conclusive to the CDP process, the factors which affect a consumer’s behaviour towards selecting green hotels can be challenging to investigate as the decision-making factors must consider those factors relative to both hotel and green attributes. These challenges and growing demand for green hotels do however, stimulate the need for ongoing investigation (Chen & Tung 2014; and Marras 2017). As such, the interest within this research is to identify and assess the factors which are subsequently transformed by cognitive processing into behavioural intention from a green hotel perspective. Socio-demographic and psychographic criteria are mainly used to explain consumer behaviour (Chan 1996; and Schiffman & Wisenblit 2015). However, to analyse consumers’ pro-environmental behaviour, several authors argue that psychographic variables provide more relevant insight into green consumer behaviour (Akehurst, Afonso & Goncalves 2012; Banerjee & McKeage 2004; Kassarjian 2007; and Verma & Chandra 2017). Therefore, the research will specifically identify and assess the psychographic variables that will best explain the consumer decision-making processes leading to behavioural intention of green hotels.

The outcomes of behavioural intention is to have consumers recommend and spread positive feedback about the product or service to others, becoming a loyal customer with repurchase

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intent, be willing to spend more on the establishment and become less price sensitive (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh 2013). In the context of green consumerism, Joshi and Rahman (2015) states that green purchase intention is the probability and willingness of an individual to give preference to green products over conventional products in their purchase considerations. Thus, taking the above into consideration, green hotel behavioural intention can be concluded to be the likelihood of a hotel consumer to visit or stay at a green hotel over its conventional counterparts, engage in positive word-of-mouth behaviour, become loyal by having the intention to revisit a green hotel and have the willingness to pay more for green hotels. In order to examine and explore whether South African consumers have the ability to reach these favourable behavioural intended outcomes in context to green hotels, the identification and assessment of the psychographic variables which will best explain the intended behaviour to select green hotels must be explored, as previously concluded.

Thorough theoretical explanations within the domain of green hotel consumerism are, however, globally limited. A study conducted by Han et al. (2010) was one of the first to examine American customers’ green hotel decision-making processes through the use of the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The theoretical framework was further applied by Han and Kim (2010), Chen and Peng (2012), Chen and Tung (2014) as well as Verma and Chandra (2017) to understand the green hotel decision formation within context to American, Chinese, Taiwanese and Indian consumers, respectively. Within Africa, such investigations are further limited. Thus, for the purpose of research validity and reliability in that the framework is based on an accredited theory which has been used and verified in various other study fields (Bohdanowicz 2006; Chan & Baum 2007; and Millar & Baloglu 2011), the current study adapts and reverts to the most utilised and consistent behavioural intention framework, namely the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen 1991

According to Ajzen (1991), the TPB is open to the inclusion of additional variables on condition that the modifications increase the explained variance in behavioural intentions. Within the green hotel context, Chen and Tung (2014), Han et al. (2010) and, Han and Kim (2010) have confirmed that extending the TPB did present statistically powerful models in explaining consumers’ behavioural intention towards selecting green hotels. Therefore, we deem it plausible in this research context, to not only explore the predictive ability of the original TPB, but to also develop and investigate extended model structures surrounding the TPB, modified from significant psychographic variables derived from previous research studies. The next section introduces the Theory of Planned Behaviour and further delineates the direct and augmented ecologically defined psychographic variables within the framework.

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The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), an extension model of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen 1991; and Ajzen & Madden 1986), is one of the most researched and influential theories for predicting social behaviour (Collins & Carey 2007; Fielding, Terry, Masser & Hogg 2008; and Rivis, Sheeran & Armitage 2009). From a green behavioural intention perspective, many researchers also take the TPB as an important theoretical basis to understand whether consumers intend to perform eco-friendly behaviour (Bamberg & Schmidt 2001; Chen 2016; Chen & Tung 2014; Groening et al. 2018; Han et al. 2010; Kim et al. 2013; and Yadav & Pathak 2016). As reflected in Figure 3, the behavioural intention is, in turn, determined by three direct factors related to the behaviour, namely the consumers’ attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen 1991).

Figure 3: Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model (Ajzen 1991)

The current study applies the TPB to understand South African consumers’ intended behaviour towards selecting green hotels. Furthermore, the TPB model will guide the extended model variations of this study in the context of green hotels. Ajzen and Fishbein (2000) recommend that the measurement of behavioural intention assumes predictive power for the future, with the focus on behavioural intention rather than actual behaviour. Therefore, the research will adapt the TPB leading to behavioural intention instead of proceeding through to actual behaviour. This approach is further supported by various research studies that utilised the TPB in context to green hotels (Chen & Tung 2014; Han et al. 2010; Han & Kim 2010; Manaktola & Jauhari 2007; Teng et al. 2013; and Verma & Chandra 2017). The section to follow discusses each of the respective direct TPB psychographic predictor variables within the context of green hotel selection intention, and to then further derive the research hypotheses that will form the basis of meeting the proposed research’s aim and objectives set.