ARM Lecture 1

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Company Logo Company Logo

Introduction to ARM:

Basic Concepts

Lecture - 1 Lecture - 1

Advanced Research Methods (ARM) Advanced Research Methods (ARM)

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Over 90% of the relevant literature in many Over 90% of the relevant literature in many

technical fields, such as biotechnology, technical fields, such as biotechnology, astronomy, computers and software, and astronomy, computers and software, and environmental sciences, has been produced environmental sciences, has been produced

since 1985. since 1985.

J B Quinn (2001) J B Quinn (2001)

Traditional programmatic approaches to

education simply cannot keep up………...

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Pace of Knowledge Creation



 _{1700 To 1950: Man’s Knowledge Doubled = 250}_{1700 To 1950: Man’s Knowledge Doubled = 250}_Years_Years



 _{1950 To 1965: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 15}_{1950 To 1965: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 15}

Years



 _{1965 To 1975: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again =}_{1965 To 1975: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again =}₁₀₁₀

Years



 _{1975 To 1980: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 5}_{1975 To 1980: Man’s Knowledge Doubled Again = 5}

Years

(4)

Operational Knowledge



 _{Imagine, your boss is planning to visit}_{Imagine, your boss is planning to visit Paris…}_Paris…

You have been assigned to prepare a Guide

You have been assigned to prepare a Guide forfor him…

him…



_{What will you do?}_{What will you do?} 

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You may consider questions like:



 _{Is it worth to research?}_{Is it worth to research?} 

_{What is purpose of your research?}_{What is purpose of your research?} 

_{What would your research questions?}_{What would your research questions?} 

 _{From whom you will collect information?}_{From whom you will collect information?} 

 _{From how many persons, you will colle}_{From how many persons, you will colle}_ct_ct

information? information?

(6)



 _{How will you collect the}_{How will you collect the information?}_information? 

 _{How will}_{How will you analyze information?}_{you analyze information?} 

 _{How will you report the}_{How will you report the findings?}_findings? 

_{What could be the kinds and sources o}_{What could be the kinds and sources o}_{f biases?}_{f biases?} 

 _{How will you prove to then boss that the}_{How will you prove to then boss that the}

information contained the Guide is relevant and information contained the Guide is relevant and reliable?

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Are you SURE that you are

not going to reinvent the

wheel?

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What is research?



 _Research_Research _{is one of the ways to find answers to}_{is one of the ways to find answers to}

your questions your questions



 _Research_Research _{is defined as human activity based on}_{is defined as human activity based on}

intellectual application in the investigation of intellectual application in the investigation of matter.

matter.



 _{The primary purpose for applied research is}_{The primary purpose for applied research is}

discovering, interpreting, and the development of discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of

methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe.

(9)



 _{Research is defines as a systematic, self}_{Research is defines as a systematic, self critical}_critical

enquiry. enquiry.



 _{Enquiry is aimed at understanding a thing or}_{Enquiry is aimed at understanding a thing or}

phenomenon or solving a problem phenomenon or solving a problem



(10)

Why Study Research?



 _{Research provides you with the}_{Research provides you with the} _knowledge_knowledge _and_and

skills

skills needed for the needed for the fast-pacedfast-paced decision-makingdecision-making

environment

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When Should Research be Undertaken? When Should Research be Undertaken?

Is sufficient time Is sufficient time available? available? Is information Is information inadequate? inadequate? High importance High importance of decision? of decision? Research benefits Research benefits

greater than costs?

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Undertake Business Research

NO

NO Do notDo not

undertake Business Research

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What is Good Research?



 Following the standards of the scientific methodFollowing the standards of the scientific method



 Purpose clearly definedPurpose clearly defined 

 Research process detailedResearch process detailed 

 Research design thoroughly plannedResearch design thoroughly planned 

 Limitations frankly revealedLimitations frankly revealed 

 High ethical standards appliedHigh ethical standards applied 

 Consistent style of citationConsistent style of citation 

(13)



Adequate analysis for

decision-m

aker’s

needs



Findings presented unambiguously



Conclusions justified



Researcher’s experience reflected



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Golden rules



 _{Use of}_{Use of Project Management tools and techniques}_{Project Management tools and techniques} 

 _{Use MindManager software to develop and}_{Use MindManager software to develop and}

refine your model for research refine your model for research



 _{Knowledge Management}_{Knowledge Management} 

 _{Remain open to all possible sources}_{Remain open to all possible sources} 

(15)

Modules in a Business Research

Proposal



 _{Executive Summary}_{Executive Summary} 

 _{Problem Statement}_{Problem Statement} 

 _{Research Objectives}_{Research Objectives} 

 _{Literature Review}_{Literature Review} 

 _{Importance of the Study}_{Importance of the Study} 

 _{Research Design}_{Research Design} 

 _{Data Analysis}_{Data Analysis} 

 _{Nature and Form of Results}_{Nature and Form of Results}

•

• _{Qualifications of}_{Qualifications of} Researcher Researcher • • _Budget_Budget • • _Schedule_Schedule •

• _{Facilities and Special}_{Facilities and Special} Resources

Resources •

• _{Project Management}_{Project Management} •

• _Bibliography_Bibliography •

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What is Research Design?



_A_A_{plan for selecting the sources}_{plan for selecting the sources} _and_and _{types of}_{types of}

information

information used to answer research questionsused to answer research questions



_A_A_framework_framework_{for specifying the}_{for specifying the} _{relationships}_{relationships}

among the study

among the study variables variables



_A_A_blueprint_blueprint _{that outlines}_{that outlines} _{each procedure}_{each procedure} _from_from

the

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Taxonomy

of Research

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Types of Research



 _{Classification # 1}_{Classification # 1}



 Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research 

 Explanatory researchExplanatory research 

 Predictive researchPredictive research

  _{Classification # 2}_{Classification # 2}   BasicBasic   Applied Applied   _{Classification # 3}_{Classification # 3}   QualitativeQualitative   QuantitativeQuantitative

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Descriptive Research



 _{Descriptive research describes a single event or}_{Descriptive research describes a single event or}

characteristic or relates a few events or variables characteristic or relates a few events or variables through statistical analysis

through statistical analysis



 _{It is}_{It is necessary for good explanatory research}_{necessary for good explanatory research} C#1

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Explanatory Research



 _{Explanatory research answers why and how of}_{Explanatory research answers why and how of}

the phenomenon through hypotheses and the phenomenon through hypotheses and theories

theories



 _{Uses theory}_{Uses theory} 

 _{Much of the research published in journals is}_{Much of the research published in journals is}

explanatory explanatory

C#1

(21)

Predictive Research



 _{Predictive research constructs and uses models}_{Predictive research constructs and uses models}

to forecast the occurrence of an event or events to forecast the occurrence of an event or events

C#1

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Basic Research



 _{Basic Research}_{Basic Research} _{aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by}_{aims to expand the frontiers of science and knowledge by}

verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory

verifying or disproving the acceptability of a given theory or attemptingor attempting to discover more about a certain concept

to discover more about a certain concept (non-specificity)(non-specificity)



 _{Mostly performed by academics}_{Mostly performed by academics}

Example: How does motivation affect employee performance? Example: How does motivation affect employee performance?

C#2

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Applied Research

Applied Research focuses on a real-life problem or situation with a view focuses on a real-life problem or situation with a view to helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity)

to helping reach a decision how to deal with it (Specificity)



 Applied research is designed to solve Applied research is designed to solve practical problems practical problems of the modernof the modern

world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One

might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to

might say that the goal of the applied scientist is to improve the humanimprove the human condition

condition ..

Example: Should a corporation adopt a paperless office environment? Example: Should a corporation adopt a paperless office environment?

C#2

(24)

Qualitative and Quantitative

Approaches

Q Quuaannttiittaattiivvee QQuuaalliittaattiivvee O Obbjjeeccttiivvee SSuubbjjeeccttiivvee

Research questions: How many?

When? Where? Strength of association?

Research questions: What? Why? How

"

"HHaarrdd" " sscciieennccee ""SSoofftt" " sscciieennccee

Literature review must be done early in

study

Literature review may be done as study

progresses or afterwards

T

Teesst t tthheeoorryy DDeevveelloopps s tthheeoorryy

One reality: focus is

One reality: focus is concise and nconcise and narrowarrow Multiple realities: Multiple realities: focus is complex anfocus is complex andd

broad broad Fa Factcts s aare re vvaalulue-e-frfree ee aand nd uunnbibiaasesedd FFacacts ts aare re vvalaluuee-l-ladadeen n anand d bbiaiasesedd R Reedduuccttiioonn, c, coonnttrrooll, p, prreecciissiioonn DDiissccoovveerryy, d, deessccrriippttiioonn, u, unnddeerrssttaannddiinngg,, shared interpretation shared interpretation M Meeaassuurraabbllee IInntteerrpprreettiivvee C#3 C#3

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Me

Mechchananisistitic: c: papartrts es eququal al ththe e whwhololee OrOrgaganinismsmicic: : whwholole e is is grgreaeateter tr thahan n ththe e papartrtss

Report statistical analysis.

Basic element of analysis is numbers

Report rich narrative, individual; interpretation.

Basic element of analysis is w

Basic element of analysis is words/ideas.ords/ideas.

R Reesseeaarrcchheer r iis s sseeppaarraattee RReesseeaarrcchheer r iis s ppaarrt t oof f pprroocceessss S Suubbjjeeccttss PPaarrttiicciippaannttss C Coonntteexxt t ffrreeee CCoonntteexxt t ddeeppeennddeenntt H Hyyppootthheessiiss RReesseeaarrcch h qquueessttiioonnss R Reeaassoonniinng g iis s ddeedduuccttiivvee RReeaassoonniinng g iis s iinndduuccttiivvee Es Estatablblisishehes rs relelatatioionsnshihipsps, c, cauausasatitionon DeDescscriribebes ms meaeaniningng, d, disiscocoveveryry U Ussees s iinnssttrruummeennttss UUssees s ccoommmmuunniiccaattiioonns s aannd d oobbsseerrvvaattiioonn

Strives for generalization

Generalizations leading to prediction,

explanation, and understanding

Strives for uniqueness

Patterns and theories

Patterns and theories developed for developed for

understanding

Highly controlled setting: experimental

setting (outcome oriented)

Flexible approach: natural setting (process

oriented)

S

Saammpplle e ssiizzee: : nn SSaammpplle e ssiizze e nnoot t a a ccoonncceerrnn; ; sseeeekks s ““iinnffoorrmmaal l rriicchh””

sample; carefully selected participants

"

"CCoouunntts s tthhe e bbeeaannss"" PPrroovviiddees s iinnffoorrmmaattiioon n aas s tto o ""wwhhiicch h bbeeaanns s aarree

worth counting"

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Objectives of Research

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Objectives of Research



 _The_The _OBJECTIVES_OBJECTIVES _{of a research project}_{of a research project}

summarize what is to be achieved by the study summarize what is to be achieved by the study



 _{Objectives should be closely related to the}_{Objectives should be closely related to the}

statement of the problem. For example, if the statement of the problem. For example, if the problem identified is low morale of employees, problem identified is low morale of employees, the general objective of the study could be to the general objective of the study could be to

identify the reasons for this low morale, in order identify the reasons for this low morale, in order to find solutions.

(28)



 _{Specific objectives should}_{Specific objectives should systematica}_{systematically address}_{lly address}

the various aspects of the problem as defined the various aspects of the problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’

under ‘Statement of the Problem’



 _{They should specify what you will do in your}_{They should specify what you will do in your}

study, where and for what purpose. study, where and for what purpose.



 _{The first specific objective usually focuses on}_{The first specific objective usually focuses on}

quantifying or specifying the problem. quantifying or specifying the problem.

(29)



 _{Use action-oriented words or verbs when}_{Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing}_writing

your objectives …e.g. to find out,

your objectives …e.g. to find out, to ascertain, toto ascertain, to measure, to explore,…

measure, to explore,…



_{Wording of objectives determine types of}_{Wording of objectives determine types of}

research design research design



 _{There is no place}_{There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity}_{for ambiguity, non-specificity}

or incompleteness or incompleteness

(30)

Why should research objectives

be developed?



 _{Focus the study (narrowing it down to}_Focus _{the study (narrowing it down to}

essentials); essentials);



_Avoid_{Avoid the collection of data which are not}_{the collection of data which are not}

strictly necessary for understanding and solving strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and

the problem you have identified; and



 _{Organise the study in clearly defined parts or}_Organise _{the study in clearly defined parts or}

phases. phases.

Rule 100% of Scope Rule 100% of Scope

(31)

Descriptive Research

E Exxaammpplleess AAiimmss Socioeconomic characteristics of a Socioeconomic characteristics of a community community

To describe what is prevalent regarding: To describe what is prevalent regarding:



 a group of peoplea group of people

  a community a community   a phenomenona phenomenon   a situationa situation   a programa program   an outcomean outcome Attitudes of customers towards quality

Attitudes of customers towards quality of products

of products

Attitudes of workers towards Attitudes of workers towards

management management

Problems faced by expatriates Problems faced by expatriates

Extent of occupational mobility among Extent of occupational mobility among business graduates

business graduates

Consumers’ likes and dislikes with Consumers’ likes and dislikes with regard to a product

regard to a product

Effects of living in a house with Effects of living in a house with domestic violence

domestic violence

Strategies put in place by a company to Strategies put in place by a company to increase productivity of workers

(32)

Correlational Research

E Exxaammpplleess AAiimmss I Immppaacct t oof f a a pprrooggrraamm TTo o eessttaabblliissh h oor r eexxpplloorre e oor r aasscceerrttaaiinn::   a relationshipa relationship   an associationan association 

 A interdeondence A interdeondence Relationship stressful working

Relationship stressful working environment and performance of environment and performance of employees

employees Impact

Impact of tecof technology hnology on emon employmentployment Impact of pre-entry training on extent of Impact of pre-entry training on extent of work related problems

work related problems

Impact of an advertising campaign on Impact of an advertising campaign on sale of a product

sale of a product

Impact of incentives on productivity of Impact of incentives on productivity of employees

employees

Effectiveness of a career counseling Effectiveness of a career counseling program on retention of employees program on retention of employees

(33)

Explanatory Research

E

Exxaammpplleess AAiimmss Why does stressful work environment

Why does stressful work environment result in high turnover of

result in high turnover of employees?employees?

To explain: To explain:



 why a relationship, association orwhy a relationship, association or interdependence exists

interdependence exists



 why a particular event occurswhy a particular event occurs How does technology create

How does technology create employment / unemployment? employment / unemployment?

Why do some people have a positive Why do some people have a positive

attitude towards an issue while others attitude towards an issue while others do not?

do not?

Why does a particular intervention work Why does a particular intervention work

for some people and not for others? for some people and not for others? Why do some people prefer intangible Why do some people prefer intangible benefits over tangible benefits while benefits over tangible benefits while

others do not others do not

Why do some people adopt a program Why do some people adopt a program while others do not

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Scientific Knowledge



 _{Scientific knowledge is the knowledge gained systematically through a cycle}_{Scientific knowledge is the knowledge gained systematically through a cycle}

of processes: of processes:   ObservationsObservations   PerceptionsPerceptions   LanguageLanguage   ThoughtsThoughts   ConceptsConcepts   ClassificationClassification   DefinitionDefinition   ConstructsConstructs   PrinciplesPrinciples   HypothesesHypotheses   LawsLaws   Theory Theory   Verification Verification

(35)

Validity



 _{It ensures that in a research study correct}_{It ensures that in a research study correct}

procedures have been applied to find

procedures have been applied to find answers toanswers to a question

(36)

Reliability



 _{Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement}_{Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement}

procedure that provides repeatability and procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy

(37)

Errors using inadequate data are much

less than those using no data at all. –

Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

(38)

Validity and Precision

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Validity and Precision

(40)

Validity and Precision

(41)

Validity and Precision

(42)

What is wrong with this statement?



_{A study conducted by Akram (2006)}

shows that GDP growth rate of

Pakistan for the year 2006-07 is

expected to fall between -8 % to +8%

(43)

Data, Information and Knowledge

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Data



 _Data_{Data... data is raw. symbols}_{... data is raw. symbols} 

 _{Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative}_{Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative}

or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables.



 _{It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence}_{It simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence}

(in and of itself).



 _{It can exist in any form, usable or not.}_{It can exist in any form, usable or not.} 

 _{It does not have meaning of itself.}_{It does not have meaning of itself.} 

 _{Data is unprocessed facts and figures without any added}_{Data is unprocessed facts and figures without any added}

interpretation or analysis. "The price of c

interpretation or analysis. "The price of crude oil is $80 per rude oil is $80 per

barrel."

(45)

Information



 _{Information is data that has been given meaning}_{Information is data that has been given meaning}

by way of

by way of relational connection.relational connection.



 _{This "meaning" can be useful, but}_{This "meaning" can be useful, but does not have}_{does not have}

to be. to be.



 _{Generally speaking, the concept of information is}_{Generally speaking, the concept of information is}

closely related to notions of constraint, closely related to notions of constraint,

communication, control, data, form, instruction, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.

(46)



 _Information_Information _{is data that has been interpreted}_{is data that has been interpreted}

so that it has meaning for the

so that it has meaning for the user.user.



 _{data that are processed to be useful; provides}_{data that are processed to be useful; provides}

answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when" answers to "who", "what", "where", and "when" questions

questions



 _{"The price of crude oil has risen from $70 to $80}_{"The price of crude oil has risen from $70 to $80}

per barrel" gives meaning to the data and so i per barrel" gives meaning to the data and so iss said to be information to someone who tracks oil said to be information to someone who tracks oil prices.

(47)

Knowledge



 _Knowledge_Knowledge _{is a combination of information, experience}_{is a combination of information, experience}

and insight that may benefit the individual or the

organisation.



 "When crude oil prices go up by $10 per barrel, it's"When crude oil prices go up by $10 per barrel, it's

likely that petrol prices will rise by 2p per litre" is

knowledge.



 application of data and information; answers "how"application of data and information; answers "how"

questions



 Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information,Knowledge is the appropriate collection of information,

such that it's intent is to be useful.

(48)

Quiz



 _{The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it}_{The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it}_started_started

raining



 _{It is raining.}_{It is raining.}



 _{If the humidity is very high}_{If the humidity is very high}_{and the temperature drops}_{and the temperature drops}

substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to

substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be ablebe able

to hold the moisture so it rains.

(49)



 _{Data represents a fact or statement of event}_{Data represents a fact or statement of event}

without relation to other things. without relation to other things.



(50)



 _{Information embodies the understanding of a}_{Information embodies the understanding of a}

relationship of some sort, possibly cause and relationship of some sort, possibly cause and effect.

effect.



 Ex: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then itEx: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining.

(51)



 _{Knowledge represents a pattern that connects}_{Knowledge represents a pattern that connects}

and generally provides a high level of and generally provides a high level of

predictability as to what is described or what will predictability as to what is described or what will happen next.

happen next.



 Ex: If the humidity is Ex: If the humidity is very high and the temperaturevery high and the temperature drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely

drops substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely

to be able to hold the moisture so it rains.

(52)



 Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of Wisdom embodies more of an understanding of

fundamental principles embodied within the knowledge

that are essentially the basis for the knowledg

that are essentially the basis for the knowledge being whate being what

it is.



 Wisdom is essentially systemic. Wisdom is essentially systemic.



 Ex: It rains because it Ex: It rains because it rains. And this encompasses anrains. And this encompasses an

understanding of all the interactions that happen between

raining, evaporation, air

raining, evaporation, air currents, temperature gradients,currents, temperature gradients,

changes, and raining.

(53)



_{Yet, there is still a question regarding when is a}_{Yet, there is still a question regarding when is a}

pattern knowledge and when is it noise. pattern knowledge and when is it noise.



 _{Consider the following:}_{Consider the following:}



 Abugt dbesbt regtc uatn s uitrzt. Abugt dbesbt regtc uatn s uitrzt.



 ubtxte pstye ysote anet sser extessubtxte pstye ysote anet sser extess



(54)



 _{It is quite likely this sequence represents 100%}_{It is quite likely this sequence represents 100%}

novelty, which means it's equivalent to noise. novelty, which means it's equivalent to noise.



 _{There is no foundation for you to connect with the}_{There is no foundation for you to connect with the}

pattern, yet to me the statements are quite pattern, yet to me the statements are quite

meaningful as I understand the translation with meaningful as I understand the translation with reveals they are in fact Newton's 3 laws of motion. reveals they are in fact Newton's 3 laws of motion.



 _{Is something knowledge if you can't understand}_{Is something knowledge if you can't understand}

it? it?

(55)



 _{Chaim Zins has authored an article}_{Chaim Zins has authored an article} _{“Conceptual}_{“Conceptual}

Approaches for Defining Data, Information, and

Knowledge”

Knowledge” available on Websiteavailable on Website

(http://www.success.co.il/is/zins_definitions_di (http://www.success.co.il/is/zins_definitions_di k.pdf) contains 130 definitions of

k.pdf) contains 130 definitions of datadata,, information

information, and, and knowledgeknowledge formulated by formulated by 45 scholars, and maps the major conceptual

45 scholars, and maps the major conceptual approaches for defining these three key

approaches for defining these three key concepts.

(56)

Concept, Construct,

Hypothesis and Theory

(57)

The Building Blocks of Theory

  _Concepts_Concepts   _Constructs_Constructs   _Definitions_Definitions  _Variables_Variables 

 _{Propositions and Hypotheses}_{Propositions and Hypotheses} 

 _Theories_Theories 

(58)

Concepts



_{A concept is a basic building bl}_{A concept is a basic building bl}_{ock of thought}_{ock of thought}

and communication which helps in organizing and communication which helps in organizing an observation or an experiential knowledge an observation or an experiential knowledge



_{A mental image that summarizes a set of similar}_{A mental image that summarizes a set of similar}

observations, feelings, or ideas. observations, feelings, or ideas.



_{All theories, ideas, are based on}_{All theories, ideas, are based on}_concepts_concepts 

_A_A concept_{concept is a bundle of}_{is a bundle of meanings or}_{meanings or}

characteristic

characteristics associated with s associated with certain events,certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors

(59)



_{Concepts have been developed over time}

through shared usage



_{E.g. flexibility, originality,…}



_{The success of research hinges on:}



how clearly we conceptualize



how well others understand the

concepts we use

(60)

Definition



_{A definition is a statement whose truth is}_{A definition is a statement whose truth is}

asserted but not considered liable to empirical asserted but not considered liable to empirical challenge

challenge



_{A definition can be descriptive or}_{A definition can be descriptive or}_{operational or}_{operational or}

mathematical mathematical

(61)

Empirical



_Empirical_{Empirical denotes information gained by means}_{denotes information gained by means}

of observation, experience, or experiment. of observation, experience, or experiment.

(62)

Operational Definition



_{An operational definition is stated in terms of}_{An operational definition is stated in terms of}

criteria for measurement so that it is criteria for measurement so that it is

unambiguous and precise, which is mostly used unambiguous and precise, which is mostly used one in research

(63)

Proposition

A

A propositionproposition is a statement concerned with the relationshipis a statement concerned with the relationship

between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical

linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of

abstraction than concepts

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

(64)

What is a Construct?



_A_A construct_{construct is an image or idea specifically}_{is an image or idea specifically}

invented for a given research and/or invented for a given research and/or theory- building purpose.

building purpose.



 _{Higher-level concepts are called}_{Higher-level concepts are called}

constructs. constructs.



 _{Constructs express the ideas behind a set of}_{Constructs express the ideas behind a set of}

particulars. particulars.

(65)



 _Example:_Example: _{Creativity is a construct generally}_{Creativity is a construct generally}

recognized to consist of flexibility, originality, recognized to consist of flexibility, originality, elaboration, and other concepts.

elaboration, and other concepts.



 _{Since constructs are not directly observable,}_{Since constructs are not directly observable,}

researchers use indicators or variables as a way researchers use indicators or variables as a way of measuring or classifying most of the

of measuring or classifying most of the particulars of the construct.

(66)

Variable



(67)

Theory



_{A theory is a well-established principle that has}_{A theory is a well-established principle that has}

been developed to explain some aspect of

been developed to explain some aspect of thethe natural word.

natural word.



_{A theory is a set}_{A theory is a set of asserted universal proposition}_{of asserted universal proposition}

communicated in a set of universal sentences (by communicated in a set of universal sentences (by universal researchers) which are derived by

universal researchers) which are derived by

observation and empirical evidence capable of observation and empirical evidence capable of agreement and corroboration (validation)

agreement and corroboration (validation)



(68)

The Value of a Theory



 _{Narrows the range of facts we need to study}_{Narrows the range of facts we need to study} 

 _{Suggests which research approaches will yield}_{Suggests which research approaches will yield}

the greatest meaning the greatest meaning



 _{Suggests a data classification system}_{Suggests a data classification system} 

 _{Summarizes what is known about an object of}_{Summarizes what is known about an object of}

study study



(69)

"It is the theory that decides

what can be observed."



(70)

Qualities of a Good Theory

“A theory is a good theory if

“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies twoit satisfies two requirements.

requirements.



 It must accurately describe a large class of It must accurately describe a large class of observations.

observations.



 And it must make definite predictions And it must make definite predictions about the resultabout the result of future observations”

of future observations”

Source: Stephen Hawking,

Source: Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of A Brief History of Time

(71)

Theories must be:



 ObjectiveObjective



 Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error) Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)



 Falsifiable / disprovableFalsifiable / disprovable

Good theories must understand, explain and predict

(72)

Hypothesis



_{A tentative theory that has not yet}_{A tentative theory that has not yet}_{been tested.}_{been tested.} 

 HypothesesHypotheses are propositions which areare propositions which are empirically testable. They are

empirically testable. They are usually concernedusually concerned

with the relationships between variables



 Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double theExample: Increasing salary by 10% will double the

production



 If basic If basic needs needs are not met, are not met, then motivation then motivation level amonglevel among

the employees will be low

(73)

The Role of the Hypothesis



 _{Guides the direction of the}_{Guides the direction of the study}_study 

 _{Identifies facts that are relevant}_{Identifies facts that are relevant} 

 _{Suggests which form of research design is}_{Suggests which form of research design is}

appropriate appropriate



 _{Provides a framework for organizing the}_{Provides a framework for organizing the}

conclusions that result conclusions that result

(74)

What is a Good Hypothesis?



_{A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:}_{A good hypothesis should fulfill three conditions:}



 Must be adequate for its purposeMust be adequate for its purpose



 Must be testableMust be testable



(75)

The Abstraction Ladder

Observations of Objects,

Events and Occurrences (Reality)

Concepts / Constructs Concepts / Constructs Propositions Propositions Theory Theory Levels of Levels of Abstraction Abstraction Empirical Level Empirical Level Abstract Level Abstract Level

(76)

Conceptual framework



 A A conceptual framework conceptual framework is used in research tois used in research to

outline possible courses of action or to present a

preferred approach to an idea or thought.



 Conceptual frameworks act like maps that giveConceptual frameworks act like maps that give

coherence to empirical inquiry.



 _{Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a}_{Conceptual frameworks (theoretical frameworks) are a}

type of intermediate theory that have the potential to

connect to all aspects of inquiry (e.g., problem

definition, purpose, literature review, methodology,

data collection and analysis).

(77)

Model



 A A modelmodel is a pattern, plan, representation or descriptionis a pattern, plan, representation or description

designed to show the main object or workings of an object,

system, or concept.



 A statistical model is a set of mathematical equations which A statistical model is a set of mathematical equations which

describe the behavior of an object of study in terms of

variables and their

variables and their associateassociated probability d probability distributions.distributions.



 If the model has only one equation it is called a single-If the model has only one equation it is called a

single-equation model, whereas if it has more than one single-equation, it

equation model, whereas if it has more than one equation, it

is known as a multiple-equation model.

(78)

(79)

(80)

(81)

Deduction / Induction



 _Inference:_Inference:



 from a general principle or law to individual instancesfrom a general principle or law to individual instances

(deduction):



(General) If something is red, it is a Tomato.(General) If something is red, it is a Tomato. 

 Your car is red Your car is red 

(Particular) Your car is also a Tomato(Particular) Your car is also a Tomato



 from several instances to a law (induction)from several instances to a law (induction)



(Specific) My apple is red(Specific) My apple is red 

 Your apple is red Your apple is red 

(82)

Deductive Reasoning

Theory Theory Hypotheses Hypotheses Observation Observation Confirmation Confirmation

Using deductive reasoning, one

starts with a given theory as the

basis for which we develop

hypotheses and then confirm

these with specific

data acquired using observation

or experimentation

(Is our theory valid or not?)

(83)

Inductive Reasoning

Observation Observation Pattern Pattern Tentative Hypothesis Tentative Hypothesis Theory Theory

Using inductive reasoning, one

starts with a specific observation

as the basis for which we develop

a general pattern and tentative

hypothesis as the foundation

of a theory

(84)

Conclusion



_{When people say they do they}_{When people say they do they}_{are omitting to}_{are omitting to}

mention essential background theory or mention essential background theory or assumptions they are making.

(85)

"All research ultimately has

"All research ultimately has a qualitativea qualitative grounding"

grounding" - Donald Campbell - Donald Campbell

(86)

"There's no such thing as qualitative data. "There's no such thing as qualitative data.

Everything is either 1 or 0" Everything is either 1 or 0"

- Fred Kerlinger - Fred Kerlinger

(87)

Just Imagine



_{A sudden crash brings us running to the}_{A sudden crash brings us running to the kitchen.}_kitchen.

The accused is crouched in front of us, eyes wide The accused is crouched in front of us, eyes wide and fearful. Her hands are red and sticky.

and fearful. Her hands are red and sticky. A knifeA knife lies on the floor. So does a jam jar and its spilled lies on the floor. So does a jam jar and its spilled contents. The accused was about to lick her tiny contents. The accused was about to lick her tiny fingers

(88)

Conclusion



_{When people say they do they}_{When people say they do they}_{are omitting to}_{are omitting to}

mention essential background theory or mention essential background theory or assumptions they are making.

(89)

Research Process



 _{Formulating a research problem}_{Formulating a research problem} 

 _{Conceptualizing a research design}_{Conceptualizing a research design} 

 _{Constructing an instrument for data collection}_{Constructing an instrument for data collection} 

 _{Selecting a sample}_{Selecting a sample} 

_{Writing a research proposal}_{Writing a research proposal} 

 _{Collecting data}_{Collecting data} 

 _{Processing data}_{Processing data} 

(90)

(91)

(92)

Tips for Novice Scholars



 _{Non-refereed contributions}_{Non-refereed contributions}



 _{Conference Proceedings}_{Conference Proceedings}



 _{Match quality of contribution and rating o}_{Match quality of contribution and rating o}_{f the journal}_{f the journal}



 _{Be prepared to revise and revise}_{Be prepared to revise and revise}_{and revise and revise…}_{and revise and revise…}



 _{Be prepared to resubmit}_{Be prepared to resubmit}



 _{Second author}_{Second author}



 _{Use master’s thesis or dissertation}_{Use master’s thesis or dissertation}



(93)

Course Outline

(94)

Course Outline



 _Lecture_Lecture_1:_1: _Introduction_Introduction_and_and_overview_overview_of_of_the_the

course and its requirements.



_Part_Part_I:_I: _Theoretical_Theoretical_Framework_Framework



 Lecture Lecture 2: 2: Scientific Scientific Method Method and and Overview Overview of of

Research in Management Research in Management   LLeeccttuurre e 33:: RReevviieewwiinng g LLiitteerraattuurre e aannd d ffoorrmmuullaattiinng g aa research problem research problem   LLeeccttuurre e 44:: IIddeennttiiffiiccaattiioon n oof f vvaarriiaabbllees s aanndd constructing hypotheses constructing hypotheses   LLeeccttuurre e 55:: WWoorrkksshhoop p oon n TThheeoorreettiiccaal l FFrraammeewwoorrk k

(95)



_Part_Part_II:_II: _Research_Research_Design_Design



 LLeeccttuurre 6e 6:: RReesseeaarrcch dh deessiiggn an annd sd saammpplle de deessiiggnn



 LLeeccttuurre e 77:: QQuueessttiioonnnnaaiirre e DDeessiiggnn



 Lecture Lecture 8: 8: Workshop Workshop on on Research Research DesignDesign



 _{Part III – Data Analysis}_{Part III – Data Analysis}

  LLeeccttuurre e 99:: HHyyppootthheessiis s TTeessttiinngg: : UUnnii- - aannd d BBii-- vvaarriiaattee Analysis Analysis   LLecectuturre e 1010:: HHypypooththesesis is TeTeststining: g: MuMulltitivvarariaiate te AAnanallysysiiss   LLeeccttuurre e 1111:: WWoorrkksshhoop p oon n DDaatta a AAnnaallyyssiiss

(96)



_{Part IV – Report Writing}_{Part IV – Report Writing}

  LLeeccttuurre 1e 122:: WWrriittiinng yg yoouur dr dooccuummeenntt   LLeeccttuurre e 1133:: CCoommmmoon n MMiissttaakkees s iin n GGrraammmmaar r aanndd Punctuation Punctuation   LLeeccttuurre e 1144:: RReeffeerreenncciinng g SSttyyllee 

(97)

Texts



_{Velde, M. V. D., Jansen, P. & Anderson, P.}_{Velde, M. V. D., Jansen, P. & Anderson, P.}

(2008).

(2008). Management Research Methods Management Research Methods. New . New Delhi: Blackwell Publishing Limited.

Delhi: Blackwell Publishing Limited.



 _{Krishnaswamy, K. N. (2006).}_{Krishnaswamy, K. N. (2006). Management}_Management

Research Methodology: Principles, Methods and Research Methodology: Principles, Methods and

Techniques.

Techniques. New Delhi: Pearson Education.New Delhi: Pearson Education.



 _{Fink, A. (1998).}_{Fink, A. (1998).} _{Conducting Research Literature}_{Conducting Research Literature}

Reviews

Reviews. London: Sage Publications.. London: Sage Publications.



 _{Brace, I. (2005).}_{Brace, I. (2005).} _{Questionnaire Design}_{Questionnaire Design. London:}_{. London:}

Kogan Page. Kogan Page.

(98)



 _{Manser, M. H. (2007).}_{Manser, M. H. (2007).} _{Guide to Good Writing}_{Guide to Good Writing}_{. New}_{. New} Delhi: Vinod Vasishtha.

Delhi: Vinod Vasishtha.



 _{Bailey, S. (2006).}_{Bailey, S. (2006).}_{Academic Writing: A Handbook}_{Academic Writing: A Handbook} for International Students

for International Students. London: Routledge.. London: Routledge.



 _{O’Shea, R. P. (2002).}_{O’Shea, R. P. (2002).} _{Writing for psychology}_{Writing for psychology} ₍₄₍₄tthh

ed). Victoria: Thomson.



 _{Dees, R. (1997).}_{Dees, R. (1997).} _{Writing the Modern}_{Writing the Modern}_research_research Paper

(99)

Journals



 European Journal of Research MethodsEuropean Journal of Research Methods



 Journal of Journal of InterdisciplinInterdisciplinary and ary and MultidisciplinMultidisciplinary ary

Research



 Journal of Research Methods and Journal of Research Methods and Methodological IssuesMethodological Issues



 Journal of Unconventional Theories and ResearchJournal of Unconventional Theories and Research



 Journal of Research Journal of Research AbstractsAbstracts



(100)

Thank you for your

kind attention

Go forth and research….

….but be careful out there.